tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-58467178766755498512024-02-20T02:02:42.268-08:00Aidan's AviaryAidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.comBlogger25125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-13935906851207496982022-10-25T11:55:00.000-07:002022-10-25T11:55:23.346-07:00Ethics committees shouldn't provide methodological reviews (IMHO)<p><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;">I hesitate to write this blog in case I unleash a further torrent of strong opinions either way on Twitter, but I couldn’t resist. I won’t link to anyone’s tweets, as I don’t want to draw people into a conversation they don’t want to be further drawn into. Many of you will have seen a recent debate on Twitter about whether ethics committees (or IRBs) should include methodological reviews. In my opinion, they shouldn’t. Yes to improving methods and experiments, no to doing this through the pre-existing ethical review system.</span></p><span id="docs-internal-guid-214ea588-7fff-14c1-8eb7-caf629418022"><p style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Good methods aren’t an ethical issue (or aren't an ethical issue that is relevant to an ethics committee)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Why do ethics committees exist for research that is conducted on human participants (which I will focus on, as I am in a psychology department and the debate has largely centred on human research and psychology)? The answer is because psychology has a history of conducting experiments that have done actual harm to participants. The classic examples are the Stanford Prison Experiment and Milgram’s experiments on obedience. We have a clear moral and legal obligation to ensure the safety of our human participants. We need to ensure that they suffer no harm during the experiment, that they are able to consent in an informed manner, and that we have clear plans in place in relation to holding their data. We also have an obligation to ensure our research doesn’t inadvertently affect non-participants, for example when conducting research into specific groups that could lead to discrimination. Getting these things wrong could cause genuine harm to our participants and wider community and having a formal committee that reviews this is critical.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The argument put forward is that running experiments with “bad methods” is unethical, therefore should be considered by the ethics committee. The question then becomes what is unethical about running a “bad” experiment? One possibility is that it is a waste of the participant’s time. I don’t think this is an ethical issue. If there is a clear statement in the information provided to the participant that they will not benefit in any way from participating (apart from remuneration for their time) then this would seem to cover this possibility. If the participant provides informed consent knowing this to be the case, this doesn’t seem like an issue to me.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Even if it was, we then have to ask what “wasting someone’s time” means. I’m sure I could find a few psychologists who think an experiment I design is theoretically important, but if I sampled 100 people on the high street and asked them if I was wasting someone’s time doing this experiment, they may well have a very different answer. Equally, I might design a very good experiment methodologically, but the question itself might be completely pointless (e.g., does the presence of a teddy bear increase the likelihood of someone choosing a Twix compared to a Mars bar?). There are no societal norms that provide a clear benchmark here.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The last point is that there are clear ethical and legal guidelines in place that allow ethics committees to set a clear bar for the acceptance or rejection of applications. Although plausible that this could be the case for methods reviews, the same structure does not currently exist. The likely scenario is then that the bar must be set so low that it becomes essentially meaningless.</span></p><h2 style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Ethics committees would struggle to assess methods</span></h2><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Let’s say good methods are an ethical issue that warrants consideration by the ethics committee. How then would methods get reviewed? Presumably the committee would consist of a wide range of researchers and the individual with the most expertise in a given area would be assigned to assess the methods of that application. I think this could work in a department that isn’t too methodologically diverse. For example, in my department most researchers are in some sense “cognitive psychologists”, despite the fact that some of us study memory, some language, some social interactions, and some development. There is therefore a common underlying theoretical framework and range of methods that we all might be able to assess. Indeed, we do include (e.g.,) power analyses in our ethics applications and it isn’t too onerous (although I would argue it isn’t necessary).</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In more methodologically diverse departments this won’t be the case. If you are the only quantitative researcher in a department of qualitative researchers (or vice versa) then there is not enough expertise to provide an informed review. This is an issue in some departments (regardless of whether methods are reviewed by ethics committees) – for example in relation to a lack of peer support and feedback from colleagues. The problem would be exacerbated if a formal (inadequate) review process was introduced and likely alienate colleagues further.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">My other worry is that by claiming methods are an ethical issue, it has the potential to draw attention away from the real ethical issues that led to the formation of ethics committees in the first place. In an ideal world where everyone has lots of time, this might not be an issue, but if one committee member happens to pay a bit more attention to the methods review and less to the information provided to the participant prior to consent, this could cause problems.</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: 700; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Good intention, bad policy</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At this point you might be thinking “but shouldn’t we be providing peer review and support to colleagues in relation to their experiments?”. The answer to this is a very big yes. However, (1) I don’t think this should be subsumed within an ethics application and (2) I don’t think it should be formalised to the extent that your experiment can be rejected. A good department should have multiple support structures in place to provide feedback on new experiments. This can be within-lab with lab meetings, across labs with departmental research groups/interest groups, within PhD tuition with thesis advisory panels, and ad hoc with peer-to-peer conversations. Many of us also get feedback on grant applications that includes detailed feedback on our proposed experiments. The best way to encourage a given researcher to improve their experiment is to ensure your research environment has multiple mechanisms in place to provide supportive, collaborative feedback. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Perhaps this could be achieved through a formal ethics process (and it appears some institutions manage this relatively successfully), however it seems more difficult to achieve than through face-to-face, collaborative meetings that allow a rapid back and forth of feedback and response (instead of a binary pass/fail of an ethics committee) and where no researcher is given the power to reject your proposal if they don’t find it up to standard. Granting power to a specific individual needs to be carefully considered, with further structure in place to ensure that power isn’t abused (e.g., a senior colleague blocking a more junior colleague from conducting research because they don’t agree with their methodological approach). </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The general point here, which applies to several other issues in academia, is that the best way to improve research in your institution is to focus your efforts on creating a positive, diverse, collaborative research environment where people want to do their best research (and have the time and resources to achieve this). We can’t use small procedural tweaks to fix larger institutional problems. </span></p><br /><p dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.38; margin-bottom: 12pt; margin-top: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 11pt; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Acknowledgements: Thanks to three reviewers (who will remain anonymous) for providing feedback on an early draft of this blog. You know who you are. </span></p></span>Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-80296098226776218812022-10-19T03:48:00.000-07:002022-10-19T03:48:33.331-07:00How to get PhD funding in the UK<p style="text-align: left;"><span style="text-align: justify;">It is that time of year again.
The leaves are turning golden, red, and orange (or just brown), the nights are
drawing in, and there is a chill in the air. Also, potential PhD students are
emailing faculty members about applying for PhD positions.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The application and funding
system in the UK is varied and complex. After going through the centralised
UCAS system when applying for undergraduate courses, many students are left
bewildered at exactly how to apply for a PhD and how to secure funding. Here is
a brief guide for those applying in the UK.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Funding landscape<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Broadly, there are three (well,
four if you include self-funding, but I would try to avoid that if you can)
ways to get funded in the UK: (1) an advertised funded PhD supported by a grant
to the supervisor, (2) a centralised departmental/university studentship, and
(3) a doctoral training programme (DTP) funded by one of the major UK funding
bodies. Sometimes overseas tuition fees are covered, but often they are not.
The lack of studentships available to international students, coupled with EU
students now paying international fees, is depressing but a topic for another
day. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The way you apply for each of
these options will vary, and even if you are applying solely to DTPs, the
application process will vary across DTPs. Faced with all this variety it is
easy to get overwhelmed, trying to read different websites across different universities,
some seemingly contradicting each other. What is a potential PhD student to do?<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>The first approach<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The best way to avoid all this
confusion is to take a step back from the funding mechanisms and think about
what you want to study, where you want to study, and who you want to study
with. You don’t need a clear proposal, but you should have a good idea of the
general area, which departments are strong in this area, and who specifically
does research in this area. Try to get to the point where you can identify an
area and several potential researchers who could potentially supervise you.
Once you have this information, you are ready to approach individual people. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">I would start with emailing a
select few people you really want to work with, preferably in October (now!) so
there is plenty of time to apply. 2-4 potential supervisors should be
sufficient at first, and if you don’t hear back from some you can always email others.
You should try to research the people you approach – know exactly what research
they do and preferably read a couple of recent papers. Make sure your research
interests overlap with theirs. They don’t have to exactly, but they should
overlap enough, and you should be able to clearly state where this overlap
lies.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Your email doesn’t want to be a
long essay, but nor should be it a couple of sentences. I would start with a
few sentences about your academic record (what you have studied, grades etc.),
then a short statement about what your research interests are and what
(general) topic you would like to pursue during your PhD. You should then make
it clear how they fit with this – make it clear you know what they research and
how your potential topics fits with this research. If you are relatively open
to topic, I would still try to say what you would like to do (to show you have
some ideas) but state you are also open to other projects. Finally, one or two
sentences making it clear why you have emailed them (basically why you want to do
a PhD at that department and with that supervisor) would be good. Attach your CV
to this email. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>The first meeting and beyond<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Hopefully they will respond to
you. It might be a simple “sorry, I’m not looking for new PhD students this
year”, but it might be more positive. If it is, I would try to organise a Zoom meeting
(or Teams meeting if you are a masochist) so you can meet them and vice versa.
At this point you should be thinking about how well you connect with them – were
you able to have an interesting conversation about potential projects, do they
seem supportive, are they providing you with appropriate information and
advice? The more you get a sense of whether you will be able to work with them
for the next three years the better. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">If all goes well, and you are
both excited to apply for funding, this is the point when you need to think about
the logistics of applying and potential funding mechanisms. Your potential
supervisor should have a good idea of the funding landscape at their
institution. There may be a single application, or you might have to apply for
different funding programmes. If the latter, you should hopefully be able to
write a single project proposal and then make small edits dependent on the
specific application. Some DTPs don’t require a clear project proposal, and you
don’t apply with the potential supervisor. This doesn’t negate approaching your
potential supervisor first though. They should be able to offer support and
advice on how to apply, increasing your chances of getting funded. In my
opinion it is better to put more effort into fewer applications than applying
for as many things as possible. This is particularly the case if you are
writing different project proposals with different potential supervisors. If
you have a strong CV, then it is the proposal and the input and feedback you
get from your potential supervisor that will likely make the difference between
getting funded and missing out. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b>General advice<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Deciding what to study and who to
pick as a supervisor is difficult. At some point it is a risk and you have to
take a chance. However, two things are critical: (1) you have to like and be
interested in the research topic and (2) you have to connect with your
potential supervisor. In relation to the latter, this doesn’t mean you can joke
around with them (if you can that is fine). It means you can talk openly with
them about research and about your career. It means that you feel they would
support you during your PhD and help you do the best science you can do. This
might mean they challenge you and ask difficult questions at times. However, they should create an atmosphere where you feel you
want to rise to those challenges and also feel comfortable simply saying "I don't know (yet...)". Having seen different models of supervision,
there is no one-size-fits-all approach. However, I have learned to value a
professional but supportive atmosphere over a purely “friendly” one. The latter
can sometimes, though not always, cover over more toxic behaviour that isn’t
immediately obvious. Think carefully about whether you think you as an
individual will be provided with the support you need to become the best
researcher you have the potential to be by the time you finish your PhD. <o:p></o:p></p>Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-56187312880195858362022-10-05T08:55:00.000-07:002022-10-05T08:55:14.468-07:00Working part time<p><span style="text-align: justify;">This is, by definition, a
self-indulgent blogpost as it is about me. As of 1</span><sup style="text-align: justify;">st</sup><span style="text-align: justify;"> October 2022, I
will be working part time, changing from a five-day to four-day working week.
Many people do this already, including many academics, so why bother writing
about it? First, I want to discuss reasons for and against doing it, and why I
eventually chose to switch. Second, I want to offer some potential advice based
on lessons I have learnt in the process of switching.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Why go part time? <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The obvious answer is to work
less. Many people need to go part time because of non-work responsibilities –
looking after children or supporting relatives. Some have second jobs or
side-projects that they want or need to dedicate more time to. Some simply want
time off. For me there was no single reason for the change. I have parenting
commitments, so often need to leave work early to pick the children up from school,
but both my children are at school now until 3.15pm (apart from in school
holidays, which is a whole different problem and discussion about balancing
parenting and work commitments during these times). I have some academically inclined
ideas that are not part of my job but I would like to pursue. I would also like
a bit of time away from work that doesn’t involve having to constantly think
about whether the children are hungry, or bored, or over-excited, or late for
some extra-curricular activity, even if it is one morning each week. The
primary reason then is simply to have a bit of time that is not fully booked –
whether that be work or parenting. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The pandemic led a lot of us to
reconsider our work-life balance. Over a year ago I thought about going part
time but decided that the best thing to do then was to put more effort into managing
my time – saying no to things, realising when a specific job did not need 100%
of my attention and effort etc. This helped make the decision this time around
easier. I had gone through the process of cutting back as much as I could, and
it had been largely successful, but I still wanted to change to four days a
week. It made sense for me, at this point in my life and career, to try
something different. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">The positives are clear to me:
less work, less stress, more time to think and reflect on both work and life.
What about the negatives? The obvious one is money. This is a particular
concern given the cost of living crisis that is only going to get worse in the
short-to-medium term. I do not have an obvious answer to this. Finances will be
stretched more than they were before, but my family is in a relatively
fortunate position financially so we should be able to afford it. I appreciate I
am lucky to be in this position, and many simply cannot afford to work part
time. The second possible negative is perhaps the main reason many academics do
not work part time: they are worried about still working a full time job but
receiving less pay. This is partly why spending a year managing my time better
persuaded me this was the correct decision. Ultimately though there is no
reason why I should be guarding my time better on a part time vs a full time
contract – we should all be guarding our time better regardless of our
contracted hours. The third negative I have only just encountered is guilt. As
the new academic year begins, I have less teaching than most of my colleagues
and I cannot help feel some guilt about this. I feel less “in the trenches”
than before. However, the stretched resources of most academic departments isn’t
really my fault and I’m being paid less money, so I’ll learn to get over this. There
are plenty of other positive and negative aspects to working part time, but
each will differ dependent on the individual. My only conclusion here is that working
part time is worth considering. Even if you decide not to, the process of
thinking through the positives and negatives has the effect that working full
time becomes more of an active choice than a default option. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Lessons learnt <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Given I have just started working
part time, I have no words of advice on how to ensure you keep your
non-contracted hours work-free. I am sure this will be a challenge for me. It
has taken a while to get to this point though, and it is worth considering what
I did and whether that was sensible. As I have already said, I have been
thinking about this for well over a year and took active steps to manage my
time better before eventually committing. This is definitely worth doing, as if
you can’t manage your time effectively then decreasing your contracted hours
isn’t necessarily going to help. Think about what jobs you need to do, what
jobs you want to do, and what jobs are not necessary and do not bring you joy.
Every time you are offered a new “opportunity”, do not say yes straight away. I
am now in the habit of immediately replying saying something like “this sounds
interesting but I will need time to consider it. I will try to get back to you
next week”. That gives me the breathing room to consider the costs and benefits
and whether I really want to do it. If I am in any doubt, my default option is
now to say no. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">Once you have decided you want to
work part time the next step is to make sure you know what jobs will be taken
away from you. The good thing about academia is some of our responsibilities
are very clear and concrete – a specific module, a set number of project
students, a citizenship duty. Ideally, your department will have a clear
workload model that shows which aspects of your job equate to the amount of
time you are cutting. If not, things can be trickier, but it should still be reasonably
clear what might equate to (eg.) 20% of your workload. There might be others in
the department or wider university that you know who can offer advice on this.
My advice is to think through 2-3 possible ways to cut your workload and decide
which you would prefer. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">When you feel you have a clear
idea, approach your Head of Department and talk to them. You will likely need
to explain (1) why you want to do this and (2) what you would like to
cut from your current workload. Hopefully your Head of Department will be
supportive of any choice you have made concerning reducing your contracted
hours, however they do have a responsibility to balance workloads across the
department with the limited resources they have available. This will almost
inevitably lead to some degree of negotiation. The more prep you can do in
advance of this, and the more options you have to suggest, the better. Personally,
it took 2-3 meetings over a few weeks to arrive at a solution that we were both
happy with. Do not immediately accept the first proposal that is presented to
you, particularly if you are in a face-to-face meeting. Take your time and
think clearly about whether it is a fair offer, preferably after the meeting.
Think about possible changes to any proposal that would make it fairer and set
these out in an email with your rationale, then set up another meeting for
further discussion.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">My final piece of advice is to be
brave (that is a bit hyperbolic, it is only working part time after all). It
took me a while to get to the point that I was willing to commit. I was not
100% sure it was the correct decision, and I am still not sure it is the correct
decision. However, I did get to the point where I felt it was correct to try. I
am sure there will be a time when I go back to full time work (sooner or
later). I hope I can at least look back on this period of my life and
appreciate the extra time I had. I also hope I use the time effectively,
whatever that means. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-77187746461367040742020-03-18T08:57:00.001-07:002020-03-18T08:57:41.381-07:00Memory and The Brain Module<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A few weeks ago a long discussion
followed a tweet about the start of my “Memory & The Brain” module. I
promised to provide a summary of the content of the module, as several people
seemed to be interested. So here it is.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
First, the context. This is an “advanced
module” that final year undergraduates (and some Masters students) take after
completing core 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> year modules in “perception
and cognition” and “brain and behaviour”. They therefore have a relatively
strong background in undergraduate psychology, and the module is designed to
push them beyond this core knowledge. It consists of eight 2-hour seminars. In
several seminars (2, 3, 5, 6, & 7), I provide a 1-hour lecture and then the
students present two key papers on the topic. The idea is for them to digest
and then present the material to the other students, and to promote a
discussion on the broader theoretical topic. This can often lead to stimulating
discussion among the students where they learn how to critically evaluate the
studies (and sometimes it can lead to awkward silences).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
In each seminar I typically
choose 2-3 “key papers” on the broader topic. Some of these papers I have
chosen because they are clearly the key papers in the area. Some I have chosen
because they are important, but also are written well, and have a clear
experimental design, to ensure the students are not overly stretched. I often
include my papers, not necessarily because I think they are THE key papers, but
because (1) students seem to like reading and discussing lecturer’s work and
(2) it allows them to understand that scientists are able to critically
evaluate their own work to the same degree as others. All this means that there
will undoubtedly be key papers related to the topic that aren’t covered. These
are the choices we sometimes must make when teaching.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Finally, the module has now run
for 4 years with relatively little change to the content (some tweaks to which
papers the students present), so this is perhaps a good moment to reflect on
whether anything needs changing or updating. If you have any suggestions along
these lines, please feel free to email me. With all that out of the way, here
is the content. Note, the content is largely taken from the online material the students have access to, in <i>italics </i>is my narrative/summary of each seminar and how they link together.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
Module overview</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Our memories make us who we are.
They allow us to delve into our past and project ourselves into the future. How
does the brain support something so complex, subjective and personal?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
This module will explore the
cognitive neuroscience of long-term memory, with a specific focus on episodic
and spatial memory. We will explore this topic from a wide variety of
methodologies - from traditional experimental psychology, to neuropsychology,
to brain imaging, to eletrophysiological recordings.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h2>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On completing this module, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Appreciate the complexities involved in the
study of long-term memory</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss memory research at multiple scales, from
individual neurons, to cortical networks, to behaviour</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Critically appraise research related to episodic
and spatial memory</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Identify different regions of the medial
temporal lobe (MTL), including subfields of the hippocampus</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Describe the main theoretical accounts of the
medial temporal lobe and hippocampus</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 1 – Memory systems and declarative memory<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>The purpose of this lecture is to
teach and/or revise what is commonly taught at the undergraduate level – primarily
Squire’s taxonomy of memory, and the possible “types” of memory that have been
identified by neuropsychology and neuroimaging studies. Many of the students will
have covered some aspects of this before (i.e., the distinction between
episodic and semantic memory). Here I want to present the material in such as
way as to prepare them for the remainder of the module. In particular, I want
them to think carefully about what a “type” of memory might be, and whether this
is a good way of conceptualising long-term memory. </i><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss evidence for multiple memory systems</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Understand the different sources of evidence
provided by neuropsychology and functional brain imaging</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Explain the role of the medial temporal lobes in
long-term declarative memory</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Squire, L.R., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1991) The
Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System, Science, 253(5026), 1380-1386.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Scoville, W.B., & Milner, B. (1957) Loss of
recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions, Journal of Neurology,
Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 20(11), 11-21.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Chapter 7: Long-term memory systems, in Eysenck
& Keane, Cognitive Psychology: A Student's handbook</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 2 – Episodic and semantic memory<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><i>Here we discuss the distinction between episodic and semantic memory. We
start off with evidence that seemingly provides a double dissociation between
episodic and semantic memory – MTL amnesic patients vs semantic dementia
patients. We then discuss how this difference may stem from that fact that
episodic memory tests typically assess anterograde memory (learning of new
material) whereas semantic memory tests typically assess retrograde memory
(retrieval of material learnt prior to brain injury/degeneration). Because of
this, we focus on research that assesses whether amnesic patients with damage
to the hippocampus/MTL can learn new semantic information.</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Give clear real-world examples of episodic and
semantic memory</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss evidence for possible dissociations
between episodic and semantic memory</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Report the key brain regions involved in
episodic and semantic memory</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Vargha-Khadem et al., (1997) Differential
effects on early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory,
Science, 227, 376-380.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Tulving et al., (1991) Long-lasting perceptual
priming and semantic learning in amnesia: a case experiment, Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 17(4), 595-617.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hodges et al., (1992) Semantic dementia. Progressive
fluent aphasia with temporal lobe atrophy, Brain, 115(6), 1783-1806.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hamann & Squire, (1995) On the acquisition
of new declarative knowledge in amnesia, Behavioural Neuroscience, 109(6),
1027-1044.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo12; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Squire & Zola (1998) Episodic memory,
semantic memory and amnesia, Hippocampus, 8(3), 205-211.</li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 3 – Recollection and familiarity<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>We next focus on episodic memory,
and the distinction between familiarity and recollection. We cover the
strengths and weaknesses of three different approaches to dissociating between
these two plausibly distinct processes – the remember/know procedure, the process
dissociation procedure, and signal detection theory/ROC curves. We then discuss
neuropsychological data for/against this distinction.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
Learning outcomes</h3>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Explain the distinction between recollection and
familiarity</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Appreciate how signal detection theory has
contributed to the recollection/familiarity distinction</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Report the key brain regions involved in
recollection and familiarity</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Yonelinas (1994) Reciever-operating
characteristics in recognition memory: evidence for a dual-process model,
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 20(6),
1341-1354.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Bowles et al. (2010) Double dissociation of
selective recollection and familiarity impairments following two different
surgical treatments for temporal-lobe epilepsy, Neuropsychologia, 48(9),
2640-2647.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Wais et al. (2006) The hippocampus supports both
the recollection and the familiarity components of recognition memory, Neuron,
49(3), 459-466.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Horner et al., (2012) A rapid,
hippocampus-dependent, item-memory signal that initiates context memory in
humans, Current Biology, 22(24), 2369-2374.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l24 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading:</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Aggleton & Brown, (1999) Episodic memory,
amnesia, and the hippocampal-anterior thalamic axis, Behavioural Brain
Sciences, 22(3), 425-444.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Brandt et al., (2009) Impairment of recollection
but not familiarity in a case of developmental amnesia, Neurocase, 15(1),
60-65.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 4 – Medial temporal lobe architecture<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Prior to seminar 4, we discuss
the hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, and the medial temporal lobes but students
have learnt little of the underlying architecture of these regions. We
therefore cover the major inputs into the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortices,
the entorhinal cortex, and the trisynaptic loop. This is covered at this point,
given the following seminar requires knowledge of the individual subfields of
the hippocampus (in particular CA3 and DG). The emphasis of this seminar is to
understand how knowledge of the underlying architecture provides clues as to what
the functions of each region might be (e.g., if perirhinal cortex receives major
input from ventral visual stream, it is likely to process object/item information
relative to parahippocampal cortex). <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>The format of this seminar is
slightly different from other seminars, in that I give a 1-hour lecture and
then students go through a workbook of brain diagrams/images in groups, identifying
key regions (this replaces student presentations). </i><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss the principal inputs into the medial
temporal lobes</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Identitify the subfields of the hippocampus</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Explain the circuitry of the hippocampal
trisynaptic loop</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l18 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Preston & Wagner, (2007) The medial temporal
lobe and memory, in Kestner & Martinez (Eds) The Neurobiology of Learning
and Memory, 305-337.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Amaral (1999) Introduction: what is where in the
medial temporal lobe? Hippocampus, 9(1), 1-6.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Lavenex & Amaral (2000)
Hippocampal-neocortical interaction: a hierachy of associativity, Hippocampus,
10(4), 420-430.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Amaral & Lavenex, (2007) Hippocampal
neuroanatomy, in Per Andersen et al (Eds) The Hippocampus Book, 37-109.</li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 5 – Pattern separation and pattern completion<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>We cover the two computational
processes of pattern separation and pattern completion, and how these are
likely supported by DG and CA3 respectively. We then cover the related concept
of attractor dynamics, and how this might relate to pattern separation/completion.
The key readings are human fMRI study, though we start to cover more rodent
electrophysiology work from this point. We focus on how pattern separation/completion
might be useful computations in relation to episodic memory.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Explain how pattern separation and pattern
completion might support memory</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Report the hippocampal subfields that support
pattern separation and pattern completion</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss research in rodents and humans that
provide evidence for these computations</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo10; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Horner et al., (2015) Evidence for holistic
episodic recollection via hippocampal pattern completion, Nature
Communications, 6(7462), 1-11.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Berron et al. (2016) Strong evidence for pattern
separation in the human dentate gyrus, Journal of Neuroscience, 36(29),
7569-7579.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l13 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Wills et al. (2005) Attractor dynamics in the
hippocampal represention of the local environment, Science, 308(5723), 873-876.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Neunuebel & Knierim, (2014) CA3 retrieves
coherent representations from degraded input: Direct evidence for CA3 pattern
completion and Dentate Gyrus Pattern Separation</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Bakker et al., (2008) Pattern separation in the
human hippocampal CA3 and dentate gyrus, Science, 319(5870), 1640-1642.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Nakazawa et al., (2002) Requirement for
hippocampal CA3 NMDA receptors in associative memory recall, Science,
297(5579), 211-218.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Steemers et al., (2016) Hippocampal attractor
dynamics predict memory-based decision making, Current Biology, 1-8.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 6 – Functional neurons in the medial temporal lobe<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><i>Prior to seminar 6, we have primarily covered fMRI and neuroimaging in
humans, and as such know little about what individual neurons in the MTL do.
Here we cover the major “functional neurons” in the MTL, as revealed by
single-unit electrophysiology in rodents and humans – place cells, head-direction
cells, grid cells, boundary/border cells, and “concept” cells. Towards the end
of the seminar we discuss how these cells are responding to (e.g.,) the rodent’s
current position or heading-direction, so seem not to serve an obvious “memory”
function. At this point, it is simply to think about this possible disconnect –
patients with MTL damage clearly show memory deficits, however individual
neurons in the MTL respond to stimuli in the present (i.e., appear somewhat
more “perceptual” in nature). </i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Report the main functional neurons in the
hippocampus</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Describe the firing characteristics of these
neurons</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Appreciate how these neurons contribute to
spatial and episodic memory</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l23 level1 lfo17; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>O'Keefe & Dostrovsky (1971) The hippocampus
as a spatial map. Preliminary evidence from unity activity in the freely-moving
rat, Brain Research, 34(1), 171-175.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hafting et al., (2004) Microstructure of a
spatial map in the entorhinal cortex, Nature, 436(7052), 801-806.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Quiroga et al., (2005) Invariant visual
representation by single neurons in the human brain, Nature, 435(7045),
1102-1107.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l20 level1 lfo18; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Solstad et al. (2008) Representation of
geometric borders in the entorhinal cortex, Nature, 322(5909), 1865-1868.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Lever et al. (2009) Boundary vector cells in the
subiculum of the hippocampal formation, Journal of Neuroscience, 29(31),
9771-9777.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Taube et al. (1990) Head-direction cells
recorded from the postsubiculum in freely moving rats. I. Description and
quantitative analysis, Journal of Neuroscience, 10(2), 420-435.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 7 – Process vs representational accounts of the medial temporal
lobes<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Building on the content from
seminar 6, we cover two dominant theories in the literature in relation to how
to best characterise the medial temporal lobes – namely process vs representational
accounts. We discuss the key research in humans that provided some of the first
clear evidence in favour of representational accounts. We finish by trying to
reconcile the representational account with the “memory” deficits that patients
with MTL damage present with. In particular, we discuss how certain processes
(e.g., episodic memory) may rely more heavily on specific representations
(e.g., complex configural representations supported by the hippocampus) than
other representations. </i><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Appreciate the distinction between process and
representational accounts</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Critically appraise evidence for and against
these differing accounts</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo20; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Ranganath et al. (2001) Medial temporal lobe
activity associated with active maintenance of novel information, Neuron,
31(5), 865-873.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hartley et al. (2007) The hippocampus is
required for short-term topographical memory in humans, Hippocampus, 17, 34-48.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Lee et al. (2005) Specialization in the medial
temporal lobe for processing of objects and scenes, Hippocampus, 15(6),
782-797.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Barense et al (2007) The medial temporal lobe
processes online representations of complex objects, Neuropsychologia, 45(13),
2963-2974.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l16 level1 lfo21; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3 style="text-indent: -.55pt;">
Further Reading</h3>
<div style="text-indent: -.55pt;">
</div>
<ol>
<li>Lee et al. (2008) Activating the medial temporal
lobe during oddity judgement for faces and scenes, Cerebral Cortex, 18(3),
683-696.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Wang et al. (2010) The medial temporal lobe
supports conceptual implicit memory, Neuron, 68(5), 835-842.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Schnyer et al. (2006) Rapid response learning in
amnesia: delineating associative learning components in repetition priming,
Neuropsychologia, 44(1), 140-149.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Nadel & Hardt. (2011) Update on memory
systems and processes, Neuropsychopharmacology Reviews, 36(1), 251-273.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<h2>
Seminar 8 – The medial temporal lobe beyond episodic memory<o:p></o:p></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i>In the last seminar, I present
some of the studies I think are most interesting in relation to the medial
temporal lobes – suggesting they play a role in episodic future thinking, scene
construction, imagined navigation, decision-making, and moral judgements. For the second half of
the seminar, the students split into groups and go over the 8 seminars discussing
content they found most challenging. We then have a group revision session
where I help to clarify any material they may not understand, or we discuss
topics that they find particularly interesting. After this, they leave with
smiles on their faces and lead productive, happy, successful lives (this has
nothing to do with that fact they completed my module though). </i><o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
<br /></h3>
<h3>
Learning outcomes<o:p></o:p></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the lecture, the student will be able to:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<ul>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Appreciate that the medial temporal lobes aren't
solely a 'memory' structure</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Evaluate research showing medial temporal lobe
involvement in non-memory tasks</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Discuss what role the medial temporal lobes play
in our mental lives</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo23; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Key Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>Addis et al. (2007) Remembering the past and
imagining the future: Common and distinct neural substrates during event
construction and elaboration, Neuropsychologia, 45(7), 1363-1377.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hassabis et al. (2007) Patients with hippocampal
amnesia cannot imagine new experiences, Proceedings of the National Academy of
Science, 104(5), 1726-1731.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Wimmer et al. (2012) Preference by association:
How memory mechanisms in the hippocampus bias decisions, Science, 338(6104),
270-273.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l21 level1 lfo24; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h3>
Further Reading</h3>
<br />
<ol>
<li>McCormick et al. (2016) Hippocampal damage
increases deontological responses during moral decision making, Journal of
Neuroscience, 36(48), 12157-12167.</li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Zeithamova et al. (2012) Hippocampal and ventral
medial prefrontal activation during retrieval-mediated learning supports novel
inference, Neuron, 75(1), 168-179.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Horner et al. (2016) Grid-like processing of
imagined navigation, Current Biology, 26, 842-847.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l11 level1 lfo25; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<h2>
Areas not currently covered (but could be)</h2>
<h1>
<o:p></o:p></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The module is necessarily
selective, and there are some topics I would like to cover but don’t feel I
have the time. These include:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<ul>
<li><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">Systems consolidation</b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> – we mention this
in passing, but don’t cover it systematically. However, there is another
advanced module that focusses on sleep and memory, so if I were to include it
there might be too much overlap between modules.</span></li>
<li><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">Brain networks</b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> – the module is heavily
focussed on the medial temporal lobes. That partly reflects my research
interests, but it also reflects my desire for the students to focus more on the
broader theoretical questions (e.g., process vs representational accounts) as
opposed to the neuroscience.</span></li>
<li><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">Memory and emotion</b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> – this is a big topic,
but one students would definitely find interesting. If students are taking this
module as part of a Masters level degree, they do have the option of reading
some of this literature.</span></li>
<li><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">Hippocampal longitudinal axis</b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> – the
module focusses on hippocampal subfields at the expense of the anterior-posterior
axis of the hippocampus. As in (3), if students are taking this module as part
of a Masters level degree, they do have the option of reading some of this literature.</span></li>
<li><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">Forgetting</b><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> – this reflects my own
shifting research interests but forgetting is a fascinating topic with a rich
psychological and neuroscientific history.</span></li>
</ul>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l14 level1 lfo26; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I’m sure there are other topics
as well, but these are the ones I have thought about including previously. As
above, if you have any thoughts or suggestions, feel free to email me. I think
that just about covers it. I hope this is useful to some – possibly just as a
way of figuring out what NOT to teach. Happy teaching to you all. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-38942397217300399932018-03-26T03:02:00.001-07:002018-03-26T03:26:49.495-07:00Excuses for not taking extended paternity leave<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
Men usually get 2 weeks of paternity
leave in the UK. Most men I know have taken this leave when their child was
born, and gone straight back to full time work following this. Perhaps they took
holiday days following this when needed. This compares to women who are allowed
up to 1 year of maternity leave (pay depends on your employer, but typically decreases over this time and the final 3 months are usually unpaid). Most women
I know have taken somewhere between 6 months to 1 year, with 9 months being
quite common. It goes without saying that this results in a big difference in
parental roles in the first year of a child’s life in the UK, with a host of demonstrable
knock-on effects in terms of career progression and pay that can last a
lifetime.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
There is provision for men to
take off more time, through shared parental leave. This has been available
since 2015, and allows the couple to share up to 50 weeks of leave in a
relatively flexible manner. I am currently 1 month into a 3-month stint of
parental leave (from 9 months to 1 year) and my wife went back to work at 9
months. However, I know few men who have committed to more paternity leave than
the usual 2 weeks despite this legal entitlement. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
Below is a list of a few “excuses”
that I have heard in relation to this. A few caveats first though. First, I am
assuming you are committed to equality between men and women. If you’re not,
take a long walk off a short pier. Second, I am writing as someone in a
heterosexual relationship, to other men in a similar relationship. This is
because it is what I have experience with, and it’s probably where most change
needs to occur in terms of questioning gender roles. Third, I am presuming you
are eligible for shared parental leave in the UK. If you’re not, this is a
pretty good excuse for not taking shared parental leave. Finally, this is not
meant to be judgmental, or if it is I apply it equally to myself as well as
others. I think I have probably used most of these excuses either implicitly or
explicitly when making decisions about the length of my paternity leave for
both my daughters (~2 months for the first on a relatively ad hoc basis, 3
months for the second). Finally, some of these excuses are legitimate in
certain situations, which is perhaps why they are easy to use as a post hoc way
of justifying your decision. The point of this list is to identify these common
excuses so we can question them more thoroughly next time we’re making a
decision.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b>1. </b></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">I didn’t
know I could</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
This one is easy to deal with. It
isn’t an excuse. If you wanted to take extended paternity leave, you would have
googled it. Ignorance isn’t an excuse.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0px;">
<span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><b>2.</b> </span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;">It
isn’t part of my work culture</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
You happen to be in a job where
men don’t typically take long periods of paternity leave? What are the chances
of that happening? Well, fairly high given that’s the current norm in UK
society. I would ask yourself two questions though: (1) do I think this culture
should change, and (2) have I previously pushed for change at work in other
ways (not related to paternity leave)? If you answered yes to both of these
questions, or just yes to the first one, then perhaps you’re realising this isn’t
a great excuse either. You are legally entitled to shared parental leave. The
only way it becomes part of work culture is for men to start taking advantage
of this opportunity.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;">3. I
earn more than my wife</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
So what? If anything, this is a
reason to take more time off, so maternity leave has less of an effect on your
wife’s pay packet. You taking time off might help to redress the balance, or at
least not exacerbate it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;">4. We can’t
afford it</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
This may be a completely
legitimate excuse. However, it’s still important to question this. For example,
you are presumably already taking a financial hit with your wife being on
maternity leave. Why did you decide this was affordable but you taking time off
wasn’t? Did you sit down and carefully do the sums, or did you decide
relatively quickly that whatever financial cost associated with your wife
taking maternity leave was worth the sacrifice but somehow it wasn’t with you
taking time off? <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
This obviously interacts with excuse
3. If you earn more, you will take more of a financial hit by taking time off.
However, it might be worth asking why you are earning more. Did your wife not
apply for that dream job during early pregnancy because she had better maternity
cover at her current job? Did you move city for your job and not hers even
before you were considering having children?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;">5. It
would affect my career progression</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
Good. It’s about time men risked taking a
hit, given the sacrifices women have been making in terms of career progression
and pay. Ultimately though, I think it unlikely that (e.g.) 3 months away from
work is really going to have a massive effect on your career. The mere fact
that you are having a child is going to affect your career in some way, so
taking a bit of time off isn’t going to make things much worse. A related excuse is "it's not a good time career-wise". It never is, get over it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;">6. My
wife wants to take the full year of maternity leave</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
This is a trickier one. I
completely understand why someone might want to take a full year of maternity
leave (leaving you with no “shared” time to take off). There are a few things
to ask though. First, how much of this desire is based on societal expectations?
I have seen pregnant women questioned when they say they’re planning on taking “only”
6 months off. Second, do you always acquiesce to your wife’s wishes, or do you
typically talk things through and arrive at a mutual decision that takes into
account both your wishes? I would hope that any equal partnership would be able
to deal with this amicably, and your wife would be able to see the positives in
you spending more time with your child.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-indent: -18pt;">7. I’m
scared, and not very good at looking after my baby</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
It’s OK to be scared. I was
terrified when I made the decision. You have to make it relatively early on
though, and then by the time it comes around you’re already committed so can’t
do anything about it. You will mess things up. You will find it hard. You will
find it rewarding though, and you will enjoy yourself (at least some of the
time).<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<br />
***EDIT***<br />
I'll keep adding to the list based on suggestions from Twitter.<br />
<br />
<b>8. My wife is breastfeeding our baby</b><br />
Thanks to Catherine Manning and Jenni Rodd for pointing this out. This is potentially a good excuse for not taking paternity leave early in the first year, but doesn't apply as much to taking time off later in the year. This can certainly make things logistically difficult if your wife is still breastfeeding when she goes back to work. There are ways around this though. I have talked to female colleagues who have gone back to work relatively early. They have got by through pumping as well as the man bringing the child to work once a day to be breastfed. As I said, logistically difficult but not necessarily a deal breaker. If this just isn't feasible, consider taking the final few months off, where your child is likely to be eating mostly solids and can much more easily be fed occasionally with a bottle. </div>
<br />Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-32279067853367469322017-10-12T04:57:00.000-07:002017-10-12T04:57:49.890-07:00Being an academic<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
This blog post was prompted by a
long twitter conversation on science careers, number vs quality of
publications, and the inevitable inclusion of the term ‘glam mags’. Although
twitter is great for an immediate exchange of ideas, it isn’t good for nuance.
Here are some of my thoughts on a career in academia.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
First, if you want to be an
academic in the long-term, you probably can be. It may not be the academic
career you dreamt of, or at the university you wanted to be at. You may not be
teaching exactly what you want. You may not have much time for research at all.
However, if you decide to be an academic, you work hard, and you aren’t
precious about your definition of ‘success’, then it’s a career like any other.
There are plenty of people out there without glittering CVs who are grafting
and getting by, but ultimately are fully fledged academics who do amazing jobs
day-after-day for little praise or reward.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Much of the conversation on
twitter relates to academic ‘success’ rather than simply what it takes to be an
academic long-term. People obviously have high expectations, and want to be
successful. I get that. I want to do amazing science with clever supportive colleagues,
teach happy engaged students, and have a vibrant well-funded lab. Where I think
there might be an issue is the expectation that this is what it means to be an ‘academic’.
To me, this is what it means to be a high-flying successful academic. None of
us have a right to expect such a career. I am grateful that I have a good solid
job in a university I like. If I have success over-and-above this, it is a
massive bonus. I will of course be under pressure from those above me to be
that high-flying academic, and I will work towards that as best as I can, but I
can’t expect it and it certainly isn’t a right.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
So what is my advice to those
more junior than myself? During your PhD, do the best possible science you can
and try to ensure you publish at least one good solid paper. This is clear
evidence that you can push a project from start to finish, and that you have
developed a set of experimental/methodological skills. If you feel you have
time, apply for fellowships that might propel your career into the
stratosphere, but don’t bank on it. Concentrate on finding a postdoc in a lab
where you feel you would fit in, you can further your skills set, and you can
do good science. Join twitter and read conversations about careers, glam mags,
etc. but don’t let it get under your skin. Understand the system you are trying
to navigate, but appreciate that there is a huge amount of inherent noise such
that there is no one-size-fits-all recipe for career success. Most importantly,
enjoy yourself as much as possible. If you do commit to academia and don’t get
that dream job, you will probably look back on your PhD and postdoc positions
rather fondly. If you do stay in academia though, well done you. Regardless of
what your CV looks like, you’re a success.<i><o:p></o:p></i></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-90675804435012272342016-12-16T08:10:00.000-08:002016-12-16T08:10:58.603-08:00My first year as a lecturer (actually 11 months)<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A few months ago I blogged about
my first 6 months as a lecturer. This is the (almost) one year since starting follow
up. Last time I confessed to feelings of loneliness as I was tasked with
writing grants and setting up a lab before the teaching and administrative load
started to ramp up. Well, the latter has now happened. I have been given a relatively substantial administrative position (though certainly not the most
arduous) and although I am yet to deliver lectures, this term I have dedicated
a significant amount of time to activities related to teaching. This means I
have had virtually zero time to do research, but all is not lost on this front
(see good news below).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Administratively I am now “strand-leader”
of the neurosciences strand of the Natural Sciences programme at York. This
does take up a reasonable amount of time, but certain aspects of the job are
actually quite fun. I have spent several afternoons interviewing incredibly
bright A-level students (most are expected to get straight A/A*s), asking them
about their scientific interests and trying to get them to think laterally
about topics/questions they may not have encountered before. The sheer
enthusiasm of many of these students is tonic for the soul. On the other hand,
I had to sit through a 3 hour board of studies meeting the other day. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Teaching this term has consisted
of supervising “literature surveys” – talking to final year students in small
groups (~7) about their topic of interest, helping them frame their specific
question/topic, and providing feedback on their plans. I have also started to
supervise 3<sup>rd</sup> year empirical projects, though the bulk of that
occurs next term. Finally, as I am teaching two modules next term, I have spent
a considerable amount of time reading around certain topics, and preparing
lectures. This can be rewarding as it forces you to go back to basics in a
particular area, but it is hugely costly in terms of time and is relatively
open-ended. As a new lecturer how do I know when I have read “enough” to teach
the topic to 2<sup>nd</sup> or 3<sup>rd</sup> year BSc students? My conclusion
was if I care enough to worry about it, I’m conscientious enough to do a good
job, but time will tell.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Finally, although I currently
have very little time for research, I am fortunate in that I managed to secure
a (smallish) grant to employ a postdoc over the next 2 years. That, alongside a
PhD student who started in October, means data will be accruing whilst I am
teaching next term. It could be a lot worse, and to be honest it couldn’t get
much better.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The contrast between the first
and second 6 months has been stark. The increased administrative and teaching
load has been a shock to the system, and for a 3-4 week period I really felt
like I was drowning. I am just as busy now, but I seem to be learning to deal
with it a bit better. I am getting better at trusting that I can get things
done relatively last minute if necessary (this goes against my innate nature,
so has been difficult to learn). The upside to this increased stress has been a
sense of increased belonging. The negative way of putting this would be “siege
mentality”, but I feel these is a sense of camaraderie with colleagues that I
haven’t felt before. Alongside this is an increased awareness of the “big
picture” - understanding how the university and department function and how the
nitty-gritty of day-to-day teaching/research/administration works. This helps
in generating distance from the minor setbacks one receives. As with last time,
a few possible words of advice:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<ol>
<li>If
you have time before teaching starts, get grants in ASAP. Smaller ones in
particular that have a faster turnaround time and potentially have a higher chance of success. Concentrate on
getting money for personnel – having individuals to collect data will reap
rewards when you’re teaching; an expensive bit of kit that you have no time to use won't.</li>
<li>As
I suggested last time, talk to colleagues as much as possible. Get their advice
when you’re struggling. Ask questions about the department and how it
functions. Turn up to meetings and talks. Become part of the academic
community.</li>
<li>Realise
that your first lecture isn’t going to be perfect. Cover a sensible amount of material
as clearly as possible. Don’t worry too much about whether the students walk
away thinking you’re amazing. Make sure they have learnt something in the 1-2
hours you have with them.</li>
<li>Accept
that you won’t have control of everything at all times. Allow some things to
slip if you have to. Prioritise your time as effectively as possible. It may
feel like you’re constantly putting out fires (that’s certainly how I feel),
but as long as nothing develops into an inferno then I count that as a success. </li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-56839055668236099012016-07-07T03:58:00.000-07:002016-07-07T03:58:07.441-07:00My first (almost) six months<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
In February I became a lecturer,
with all that it entails. I have a permanent contract, I have responsibilities,
I have my own office, and I have undergraduates to teach. In short, things have
changed. Given I am approaching the six month mark in my new job, I thought I
would write a post reflecting on what I have done and what I have learnt. The
short answer to both being: (subjectively) not very much.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
First, what have I done? Or
perhaps the more informative question should be: what should I have done? I am
in the fortunate position that I have minimal teaching responsibilities until
January 2017. I realise I am lucky in this regard. As such, I have been given
the opportunity to set up my lab and get my research up and running
unencumbered by the responsibilities associated with teaching. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I think my job at present broadly
falls into three categories: (1) finish up postdoc work, (2) get new projects
up and running and (3) apply for grants for future projects. As such, I have to
balance demands from the past, present and future. Which one is more important?
The simple answer is none. I have to try to make progress on all fronts in the
long-run, but concentrate on one of these aspects in the short term to actually
make some form of progress. I have tried to not make too many long-term
“deadlines”, instead I simply try to come in everyday and get something
meaningful done. If I’m feeling less inspired, I tackle easier jobs but still
make sure I tackle them. If I’m feeling more inspired, I tackle harder jobs.
It’s amazing how much you can achieve by simply getting stuck in. This approach
has potentially worked. I have managed to resubmit a postdoc paper (now fully
published), write and submit a short grant proposal, and collect some
preliminary data on a more short-term research project. My hope is I can
continue with this policy until the postdoc work tapers off over the next year.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
One difficulty I found initially was actually getting started on a job. This was largely driven by the
inevitable feeling of being alone relative to when I was a postdoc. I was
accustomed to sharing an office with other postdocs and constantly discussing
science. I was accustomed to having regular discussions with my PI about what I
had done and what I was going to do. Despite the fact that I had relative freedom in my postdoc, the continual everyday input from other scientists
shaped what I did on a day-to-day basis. I didn’t fully realise this at the
time. Although my PI never directly told me what to do, I did not appreciate
how much he steered me in the appropriate direction. I now have very supportive
colleagues who I speak to regularly, but the onus is definitely on me to do
what I think is best. Essentially I now have to fully rely on my frontal lobes
to makes day-to-day decisions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Although I am yet to fully
immerse myself, the other stark contrast is the amount of administration involved
in a faculty position. Again, as a postdoc I was relatively sheltered from the bureaucratic
side of academia. Now, the small jobs, and associated paper work, are already
starting to affect my day-to-day work schedule. No longer can I rely on my
brain to remember all the small administrative jobs I am required to do and
when I need to do them. This is before I have even been given a ‘proper’ administrative
role in the department, such as contributing to a departmental committee. At
present it feels a bit like the calm before the storm. I have the ominous
feeling that things will only get worse. As such, I am trying to be much more organised,
using Google Calendar to dictate what I need to do and when.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I sum, it’s been fascinating,
overwhelming, scary, fun, boring, lonely, engaging, and many other adjectives.
A bit like any other day in the life of an academic. Would I do anything
differently? Probably not. It’s too early to tell whether I’ve made the most of
my first 6 months, or whether I should have done things differently. Here’s a
few thoughts that might prove useful to some though:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="text-indent: -18pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<ol>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Get stuff done. As academics we are prone to
thinking things over and questioning ourselves. Don’t let this get in the way
of doing something. Start a small experiment, analyse some old data. Just do
something.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Talk to others. Starting a faculty position can
be lonely. Talk to as many colleagues as you can. Go for lunch, go for coffee,
ask for feedback on a grant, discuss new experimental ideas. They went through
the same process once, and know how difficult it can be. Ultimately, they want
you to succeed just as much as you do.</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Act in the short-term but plan for the
long-term. Think about big projects and grants. Mull over how different
experimental ideas might fit into a larger question. Push ideas further than
you have before. Thank bigger and longer-term than you did as a postdoc. But
don’t wait around for grant money to start these projects. Don’t let (3) get in
the way of (1).</span></li>
<li><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Don’t listen to me, I’ve only been in the job
for less than six months.</span></li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-25592793590167007072015-10-22T02:01:00.000-07:002015-10-22T05:47:13.673-07:00Computational modelling coursesRecently on twitter I asked for advice on computational modelling and/or computational neuroscience courses, in particular summer schools for early career researchers. I received quite a few suggestions so thought I would create a list for anyone else who is interested. Note, I only know about these courses through recommendations and/or the information on their website. For some, the link is for a previous years course, so I can't guarantee they are definitely still running. Still, I hope the list proves useful for some.<br />
<br />
<b>Computational modelling of cognition with applications to society</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://escop.eu/news/conferences-news/third-european-summer-school-on-computational-modeling-of-cognition-with-applications-to-society-/" target="_blank">http://escop.eu/news/conferences-news/third-european-summer-school-on-computational-modeling-of-cognition-with-applications-to-society-/</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Advanced course in computational neuroscience</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://www.accn.pt/venue/lisbon-portugal/previous-course-editions" target="_blank">http://www.accn.pt/venue/lisbon-portugal/previous-course-editions</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Computational psychiatry course (Zurich)</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://translationalneuromodeling.org/cpcourse/" target="_blank">http://translationalneuromodeling.org/cpcourse/</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Computational psychiatry course (London)</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="https://sites.google.com/site/comppsychcourse/2015schedule" target="_blank">https://sites.google.com/site/comppsychcourse/2015schedule</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Summer school in computational sensory-motor neuroscience (CoSMo)</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://www.compneurosci.com/CoSMo/" target="_blank">http://www.compneurosci.com/CoSMo/</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>Model-based neuroscience summer school</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://www.modelbasedneuroscience.com/" target="_blank">http://www.modelbasedneuroscience.com/</a></b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b>OIST computational neuroscience course</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="https://groups.oist.jp/ocnc" target="_blank">https://groups.oist.jp/ocnc</a></b><br />
<br />
<b>Brains, minds and machines</b><br />
<br />
<b><a href="http://www.mbl.edu/education/special-topics-courses/brains-minds-and-machines/" target="_blank">http://www.mbl.edu/education/special-topics-courses/brains-minds-and-machines/</a></b><br />
<br />
<b>Computational neuroscience and the hybrid brain</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<b><a href="http://www.nncn.de/en/news/events/computational-neuroscience-hybrid-brain" target="_blank">http://www.nncn.de/en/news/events/computational-neuroscience-hybrid-brain</a></b><br />
<br />
<b>ACT-R spring school and master class</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<a href="http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/?post_type=announcement&p=15589" target="_blank"><b>http://act-r.psy.cmu.edu/?post_type=announcement&p=15589</b></a><br />
<br />
If anyone else has further suggestions, I'm happy to continue to update this list. Just leave a comment with the link and name of the course.Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-66189380834472957072015-07-02T05:11:00.000-07:002015-07-03T01:26:32.975-07:00Research briefing: Evidence for holistic episodic recollection via hippocampal pattern completion<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Horner, A.J., Bisby, J., Bush, D., Lin, W-J., & Burgess, N. (2015) Evidence for holisitic episodic recollection via hippocampal pattern completion, Nature Communications, 6:7462 doi: <a href="http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2015/150702/ncomms8462/full/ncomms8462.html" target="_blank">10.1038/ncomms8462</a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Think back to your last birthday.
Perhaps you were at home, eating good food. Perhaps you were in a pub, drinking
good beer. Perhaps you were in a club, dancing to terrible music. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
When we recall events like these
from our past we are able to re-immerse ourselves in the experience, as if we
were there once again. You might remember being in your dining room, eating
birthday cake, whilst your friends sing happy birthday. You might even remember
incidental details, like what you were thinking at the time or the music
playing in the background. How do we remember and re-experience these complex
events?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A long-standing theory,
originally proposed by Marr but developed by many others, suggests that the individual
elements of a complex event are represented in distinct neocortical regions.
For example, the faces of our friends might be represented in visual regions in
the ventral temporal lobe whilst the background music might be represented in
auditory regions in the lateral temporal lobe. These distinct elements are
thought to be bound in a single coherent memory – what Tulving referred to as
an ‘event engram’. It is the hippocampus, receiving input from multiple
neocortical regions (acting as a ‘convergence zone’ in the words of Damasio),
that is thought to form these event engrams when we first experience an event.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
What happens when remembering
this event at a later date? Perhaps you meet a friend who attended your
birthday party. This friend acts as a ‘cue’ to retrieve the previous event. Importantly,
with a single cue we are able to retrieve the entire event. In this case, we
see our friend and that enables us to remember the room we were in, our
birthday cake, the background music etc. This retrieval of a complete memory
from a partial cue is known as ‘pattern completion’ and is thought to be a key
function of the hippocampus (and particularly subfield CA3 of the hippocampus).
Following this pattern completion process in the hippocampus, all the retrieved
elements are thought to be ‘reinstated’ in the neocortex. In other words, the
same representations that were active when we first experienced an event become
active at retrieval. It is this hippocampal pattern completion process,
followed by reinstatement of all event elements in the neocortex, that is
thought to underpin ‘recollection’ – our ability to subjectively re-experience
a previous life event.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Despite a wealth of evidence for
the involvement of the human hippocampus in episodic memory, and recollection
in particular, evidence has not been presented for this pattern completion
process in relation to the retrieval of complex events. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Participants learnt pairwise
associations of locations (e.g., kitchen), famous people (e.g., Barack Obama),
objects (e.g., hammer) or animals (e.g., dog). Importantly, each pairwise
association overlapped with other associations, forming complex ‘associative
structures’ (see Figure 1). For example, you might learn ‘Kitchen-Obama’ on one
trial, ‘Obama-hammer’ on a second trial and ‘hammer-kitchen’ on a third trial.
As such, we build relationships between multiple elements across separate
encoding trials. This is an example of a ‘closed-loop’ structure, where each
element is paired with each other element (forming a triangle of associations).
This closed-loop condition is compared to ‘open-loop’ structures, where a chain
of three associations is formed between four elements (see Figure 1).
Importantly, both conditions are formed from three pairwise associations across
three encoding trials. Participants are asked to vividly imagine the two
elements for each association ‘interacting in a meaningful way’.</div>
<br />
<o:p></o:p><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOcxWK-O8btT9vPRJtNBu13kM1E28UChbvTmexZZrwFMYxsJg1OpqWPfP-8KQoISH_nU2q8NcyfMFWUDZ2kWg3VxpGWdqO-9CXkR34mOqa-zL9cqIq8ZhYv7h7P94WPdgoc8jUT5Wq34I/s1600/fig1a.tif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOcxWK-O8btT9vPRJtNBu13kM1E28UChbvTmexZZrwFMYxsJg1OpqWPfP-8KQoISH_nU2q8NcyfMFWUDZ2kWg3VxpGWdqO-9CXkR34mOqa-zL9cqIq8ZhYv7h7P94WPdgoc8jUT5Wq34I/s640/fig1a.tif" width="640" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
At retrieval we tested each
pairwise association. For example, we cued with ‘Obama’ and participants were
required to retrieve ‘kitchen’. They were shown six elements of the same type
(locations in this example) and asked to select the element (kitchen)
originally paired with the cue (Obama). The retrieval trials were identical for
both the closed-loop and open-loop condition.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
How does this allow us to look
for pattern completion? If pattern completion is present then when retrieving a
single element, all other elements should also be retrieved. In our example,
when cued with ‘Obama’ and retrieving ‘kitchen’ the object associated with
these two elements (‘hammer’) should also be retrieved. This is despite
‘hammer’ being task-irrelevant during this trial.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5ujS4uaxBjs9nkafq6_ypX4AHzdL_DYjM6cO5lyi6w_7Z931hySD6m590QnixT44Co0stFbFdwEIdcaIq7szAnVNw7E7fc-36qL0g4O0bDTOC-CdiX6lOaPwTpnhyr63XYEuoMnpDJXE/s1600/fig2a.tif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5ujS4uaxBjs9nkafq6_ypX4AHzdL_DYjM6cO5lyi6w_7Z931hySD6m590QnixT44Co0stFbFdwEIdcaIq7szAnVNw7E7fc-36qL0g4O0bDTOC-CdiX6lOaPwTpnhyr63XYEuoMnpDJXE/s400/fig2a.tif" width="400" /></a>This retrieval should have behavioural
consequences – retrieval accuracy for any two elements within an event should
be related (called ‘behavioural dependency’). If you successfully retrieve
‘kitchen’ when cued with ‘Obama’, you should be more likely to retrieve
‘hammer’ when cued with ‘Obama’. This is because your retrieval success for one
element is based on the strengths of all the associations for a single event. We
provide evidence for this ‘behavioural dependency’ in our closed-loop, but not
open-loop, condition (see Figure 2). This suggests, despite their similarity at
both encoding and retrieval, that pattern completion is present in the
closed-loop but not the open-loop condition. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKvKeQ7qsxB9RKpE9DnB-t42Ns88Vq7t86adu_NWx9rJXCAeEh6Ytt6Ozi1oh-9XhijvuWInYKagH9SSxJ-Pk8Xf2I2b7H8i95yLNvtpwfUby3Ctqsj755rkKKF5fTtDyqw930Jso7J_o/s1600/fig3a.tif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKvKeQ7qsxB9RKpE9DnB-t42Ns88Vq7t86adu_NWx9rJXCAeEh6Ytt6Ozi1oh-9XhijvuWInYKagH9SSxJ-Pk8Xf2I2b7H8i95yLNvtpwfUby3Ctqsj755rkKKF5fTtDyqw930Jso7J_o/s320/fig3a.tif" width="320" /></a>If pattern completion is present
in the closed-loop condition we should see reinstatement of all elements in the
neocortex – including the ‘non-target’ element. Using fMRI, we identified
neocortical regions associated with the encoding/retrieval of individual
elements. Locations were associated with the parahippocampal gyrus, famous
people with the medial prefrontal cortex and objects/animals with lateral
occipital cortex. We next looked for ‘reinstatement’ of non-target elements. If
cuing with a location, and retrieving a person, we should also see
reinstatement in the region associated with objects/animals. We found greater
activity in non-target regions for closed-loops relative to open-loops, again
consistent with pattern completion in the closed-loop but not open-loop
condition (see Figure 3). Importantly, we also show this ‘behavioural
dependency’ and retrieval of non-target element in a computational model of the
hippocampus (an attractor network model), further demonstrating the presence of
pattern completion in the closed-loop but not the open-loop condition.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL8GbA_1jNDEzrqUn1WBkKC5q9DWogzBcFIq_35hdc8uplQxFlZ9QxklMB7zSrC4W2YT21Gomc-GMpfj0cIyNHm4IbV-FL19ACBb7odmvF5lXoRj_L3OvaUkrdFoYz59dvaIVYmtCxbyU/s1600/fig4a.tif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL8GbA_1jNDEzrqUn1WBkKC5q9DWogzBcFIq_35hdc8uplQxFlZ9QxklMB7zSrC4W2YT21Gomc-GMpfj0cIyNHm4IbV-FL19ACBb7odmvF5lXoRj_L3OvaUkrdFoYz59dvaIVYmtCxbyU/s320/fig4a.tif" width="295" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Finally, we correlated this
‘non-target’ reinstatement with the BOLD response across the whole brain to see
what other regions correlated with reinstatement. This revealed the hippocampus
(see Figure 4). The BOLD response in the hippocampus correlated (across
participants) with the amount of neocortical reinstatement for the non-target
element. This result supports the idea that the hippocampus is performing
pattern completion, retrieving all event elements, allowing for the
reinstatement of these elements in the neocortex.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
What is critical to our study is
that we always compare the closed-loop relative to the open-loop condition. In
both conditions participants have learnt a series of overlapping pairwise
associations and are successfully performing pairwise associative retrieval. As
such, all our results are related to processes over-and-above simple pairwise
associative retrieval. It is this careful experimental design that we believe
is critical to our ability to infer the presence of pattern completion in our
data. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
To summarise, we have presented behavioural,
computational modelling and fMRI evidence for hippocampal pattern completion
and neocortical reinstatement in humans, and related these processes to the
retrieval of complex events. We believe this is the first evidence to support a
long-standing mechanistic account of recollection – our ability to subjectively
re-experience previous life events. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-16273884573294592972015-05-18T01:57:00.002-07:002015-05-18T01:59:39.811-07:00The academic parent #5 – the aftermath<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
It has now been about five weeks
since I finished full time paternity leave, looking after my daughter when my
wife went back to work after nine months. We are now both back at work, and my
daughter is going to nursery three days a week. I’m off today to look after
her, and she is currently blissfully asleep.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Looking back on my paternity
leave, it seems ridiculous that I ever considered not doing it. I took a month
of holiday, so it wasn't a long period of time in the grand scheme of things.
When I returned to work nothing seemed to have changed. Other people’s projects
had moved on slightly, but not to the extent that I now feel I'm
underperforming in any significant way. It is clear I won’t be as productive
this academic year as I might ordinarily have been, but I just had a child – so
yeah.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apart from actually looking after
your baby and spending time with them, the best thing about taking leave is the
shared experience. Suddenly all those joys, annoyances, trials and tribulations
that my wife would tell me about became real. She would get home from work and
we would have the same conversation as we always had, just in reverse. I can’t
express how good this is for a relationship rapidly adjusting to a new way of
living. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Despite this, the experience isn't
the same. My daughter now sleeps through the night, naps regularly during the
day, and is predominantly a smiling happy child. Looking after her was hard,
but I didn't experience the sheer fear of looking after a helpless newborn
alone, whilst suffering chronic sleep deprivation. Equally, although my wife
has now shared in the adjustments required when going back to work (see: <a href="http://aidanhorner.blogspot.co.uk/2015/01/the-academic-parent-1-guilt-and.html" target="_blank">the academic parent #1</a>), she hasn't experienced dealing with work
when chronically sleep deprived. I remember having scientific conversations
whilst getting coffee where I had to accept that I just couldn't contribute. My
mind wasn't working well enough to have any meaningful discussion. Equally, the
guilt of leaving for work knowing full well how bloody hard it's going to be
for my wife was hard. I think when my wife went back to work it was more
bemusement than anything else. She knew I'd be fine, but wanted to see how I'd
initially get basic stuff wrong (I did).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The last day of paternity leave
was a mix of emotions. My daughter decided to have one of her rare stroppy
days. She was crying and whining for most of the day. That meant I spent much
of the day counting down the hours until her bedtime. When it finally arrived I put
her in her cot and closed her bedroom door. I sighed with relief, and then wished I could have spent a bit more time with her.<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-40785915997611393692015-03-18T03:52:00.000-07:002015-03-18T03:58:07.617-07:00Some thoughts on the UCL “Is Science Broken” debate<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
[Disclaimer: This was written the day after the event, and I took no notes. If I have misrepresented the opinions of any of the panel members then it is a result of my poor attention during, and poor memory following, the debate. My apologies to those involved if this is the case.]<br />
<br />
For those that
weren't aware, UCL hosted a talk and debate last night entitled “Is Science
Broken? If so, how can we fix it?” Chris Chambers (@chriscd77) gave a talk
about the recent introduction of Registered Reports in the journal Cortex. This
was followed by a broader panel discussion on the problems facing science (and
psychology in particular) and how initiatives, such as pre-registration, might
be able to improve things. Alongside Chris, Dorothy Bishop (@deevybee), Sam
Schwarzkopf (@sampendu), Neuroskeptic (@Neuro_Skeptic) and Sophie Scott
(@sophiescott) took part in the debate, and David Shanks chaired.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
First, I found
Chris’ talk very informative and measured. Words such as “evangelist” are often
bandied about on social media. Personally, I found him to be passionate about
pre-registration but very realistic and honest about how pre-registration fits
into the broader movement of “improving science”. He spend at least half of his
talk answering questions that he has received following similar presentations
over the last few months. I would guess about 90% of these questions were
essentially logistical – “will I be able to submit elsewhere once I've
collected the results?”, “couldn't a reviewer scoop my idea and publish whilst
I’m data collecting?” It is obviously incumbent upon Chris, given he has
introduced a new journal format, to answer these legitimate logistical
questions clearly. I think he did a great job in this regard. I can’t help feeling
some of these questions come from individuals who are actually ideologically
opposed to the idea, trying to bring about death by a thousand cuts. Often
these questions implicitly compare pre-registration to an “ideal” scenario,
rather than to the current status quo. As a result, I feel Chris has to point
out that their concern applies equally to the current publishing model. I may
just be misreading, but if people are ideologically opposed to pre-registration
I’d rather they just come out and say it instead of raising a million and one
small logistical concerns.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
On to the
debate. This worked really well. It is rare to get five well-informed
individuals on the same stage talking openly about science. There was a lot of
common ground. First, everyone agreed there should be more sharing of data
between labs (though the specifics of this weren't discussed in detail, so
there may have been disagreement on how to go about doing this). Dorothy also
raised legitimate ethical concerns about how to anonymise patient data to allow
for data sharing. There was also common ground in relation to replication,
though Chris and Neuroskeptic both cautioned against only replicating
within-lab, and pushed for more between-lab replication efforts, relative to
Sophie. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Where I think
there was disagreement was in relation to the structures that we put in place
to encourage good practice (or discourage bad practice). On several occasions
Chris asked how we were going to ensure scientists do what they should be doing
(replicating, data sharing, not p-hacking etc.). Essentially it boils down to
how much scope we give individual scientists to do what they want to do.
Pre-registration binds scientists (once the initial review process has been
accepted) to perform an experiment in a very specific way and to perform specific
statistics on the data collected. This should (though we need data, as pointed
out by both Chris and Sam) decrease the prevalence of certain issues, such as
p-hacking or the file drawer problem. You can’t get away from the fact that it
is a way of controlling scientists though. I think some people find that
uncomfortable, and to a certain extent I can understand why. However, what is key to pre-registration is that
it is the scientists themselves who are binding their own hands. It is masochistic
rather than sadistic. Chris isn't telling any individual scientist how to run
their experiment, he is simply asking scientists to clearly state what they are
going to do before they do it. Given the huge multivariate datasets we collect
in cognitive neuroscience, giving individuals a little less wiggle room is
probably a good thing.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Sophie pointed
out at the beginning of the debate that science isn't measured in individual
papers. In one hundred years no-one will remember what we did, let alone that
specific paper we published in Nature or Neuron (or Cortex). This is a reasonable
point, but I couldn't quite see how it undermined the introduction of formats
such as pre-registration. I don’t think anyone would claim a pre-registered
paper is “truth”. The success (or failure) of pre-registration will be measured
across hundreds of papers. The “unit” of science doesn't change as a result of
pre-registration. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Where I found
common ground with Sophie was in her emphasis on individual people rather than
structures (e.g., specific journal formats). Certainly, we need to get the
correct structures in place to ensure we are producing reliable replicable
results. However, whilst discussing these structural changes we should never
lose sight of the fact that science progresses because of the amazingly
talented, enthusiastic, nerdy, focussed, well-intentioned, honest, funny, weird,
clever people who design the experiments, collect the data, run the statistics
and write the papers. The debate wonderfully underlined this point. We had
five individuals (and a great audience) all arguing passionately about science. It is that raw
enthusiasm that gives me hope about the future of science more than any change
in journal format.<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com13tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-46193467541056191382015-03-16T08:06:00.000-07:002015-03-16T08:06:41.994-07:00The academic parent #4 - things wot I learnedA brief list of things I have learnt in the space of less than a week:<br />
<br />
<ol>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Looking after your child on a daily basis is tiring. One day, it's a doddle. However, several consecutive days on your own and it starts to get to you. Both my wife and I have been shattered this last week. She has been adjusting to life back at work and I have been adjusting to the life of a full time carer. Hopefully we'll have a bit more energy this week and not have to go to bed at 9pm every night.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">You're constantly thinking several hours ahead. When should I feed next, is it time for a nap, if I go for a walk now will she fall asleep and therefore not nap at home? Get your timings right and everything works wonderfully. Get them wrong and you end up spending 6 hours straight with a grumpy baby and no backup to help you out.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Trips to the shops are now the best thing ever. You get out the house and your child gets some fresh air and visual stimulation. Even if it's just walking down the road to buy some milk it can break up an afternoon into two more manageable chunks of time.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">Don't sit down and have a cup of tea at the start of a nap. Before I knew it about an hour had gone by and I had been staring at the ceiling. I try to get straight on the computer so I can at least catch up on a few emails (whilst drinking my tea). That way I feel I haven't completely wasted my free time.</li>
<li style="text-align: justify;">It's great. Try it.</li>
</ol>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-23446014501944989682015-03-11T03:31:00.001-07:002015-03-11T03:31:24.759-07:00The academic parent #3 – the return of paternity leave<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Today I am back on paternity
leave. My daughter is nine months old and my wife has returned to work. Rather
than send our daughter straight to nursery, we thought it might be a good idea
if I look after her full time for a month. We have done this for several reasons,
which I will explain below. I had toyed with the idea of taking time off for a while (in addition to the paternity leave I took immediately
after she was born), but it was a chance meeting at a conference dinner that
really got me thinking. I was chatting to a lecturer who had returned to work
following maternity leave, and she was explaining how her husband was taking 3
months of paternity leave. I explained I would like to do something similar,
but given I’m currently a postdoc who is thinking about future jobs and perhaps
needs a few more publications under his belt it wasn't the best timing for me.
This was obviously crap, and luckily she called me out on it. There is never a “convenient”
time to take paternity/maternity leave. There will always be an excuse. Since
then the plan has been relatively set in stone, at least in my mind.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
So, why take leave now? First, because
I want to. I want to experience at least a small part of what my wife has been
through the past nine months. It won’t be the same, it will be easier for me,
but it will be close enough. More importantly, I want to spend more time with
my daughter when she is still a baby. Second, because I can. I have an
understanding boss and work in a supportive department. I may not be in this
situation again so I should take these opportunities when they present
themselves. Third, because it makes financial sense. Rather than take official
paternity leave, I’m essentially taking all my annual leave in one go. I don’t
think I have ever used up my allotted annual leave in a year. Most academics
probably don’t. For this year at least that is what I am doing. This means,
after a few months of statutory pay, my wife and I will both be on full pay for
a month without nursery costs. This will help a lot. It would not have been
financially viable for me to take official paternity leave, and therefore not be
paid during this time, as we would not have had enough income between the two
of us to cope. Fourth, because going back to work after nine months of
maternity leave is a big deal, and having to cope with the emotion of leaving
your child at the nursery seems like quite a lot to handle all at once. This
way my wife can be at work knowing I’m looking after our daughter, at least for
a few weeks.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Finally, because more men need to
take time off work and look after their kids. I've had very mixed reactions to
taking (only) one month off. Some have sounded shocked, others have asked what
I’m going to do with my time (answer: look after my daughter). It’s that mix of
reactions that made me realise it was the right thing to do on top of all the
personal reasons listed above. If it’s still a shock that a man might take time
off work to look after their child (and I reiterate, it is only one month so it
really isn't that significant) then we live in a pretty weird society.<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-14749147833103731892015-03-10T07:06:00.000-07:002015-03-10T07:06:07.261-07:00The academic parent #2 – work-life balance<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A recent article in <a href="http://www.nature.com/naturejobs/science/articles/10.1038/nj7534-401a" target="_blank">Nature</a> nicely highlighted some of the difficulties associated with juggling both work
and parenting responsibilities whilst trying to maintain some semblance of a
social life. Needless to say, it isn’t easy. Whilst I found the article to be
an honest and frank assessment of the trials and tribulations of parenthood and
academia, I couldn’t help feeling that part of the discussion was missing.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
We are introduced to several
research active scientists who plan weeks ahead, call on
friends/colleagues/parents to help with child care, work into the evening once
their child has gone to bed, all in the quest to maintain their pre-child
levels of work. For instance, during maternity/paternity leave one couple
“planned to use [their child’s] nap times and evenings at home to work on data
analysis, manuscripts and grant proposals”. Another example tells of how the
“couple typically works side-by-side in their home office for three to four
hours” after they have put their daughter to bed.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
It’s great that these individuals
are managing to find time to be a parent and be productive at the same time –
although their social life seems to have suffered somewhat. However, my issue
with the whole article is it presents two options (1) maintain previous work
patterns and be a bad parent or (2) change work patterns but maintain the same
working hours and be a good parent. At no point is the concept of working fewer
hours brought in for consideration. I’m not saying this is the correct
solution, but surely it is a viable option? Everyone agrees that academics can
work long hours, reviewing papers in the evening, spending all night finishing
a grant application, collecting data on the weekend. Given this common
agreement, why is it not remotely conceivable that one might want to cut down
on these hours once one has a child?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
My issue with a lot of articles
on “work-life balance” is actually that exact phrase. The word “balance” seems
too positive a term for what is essentially a decision about what to sacrifice
in your life. The above examples from the piece in Nature have, although not
explicitly stated, sacrificed their social life in order to maintain work hours
whilst spending time with their children. That’s fine, but this sacrifice
should be explicitly acknowledged. Personally, I work slightly fewer hours than
I used to (trying to be more productive with those hours I am in the office)
and go out with friends a lot less. I have also sacrificed any time to myself
in the evening. Once my child is asleep I spend time with my wife, as we rarely
get time alone during the day. I consider this a relatively “balanced” life
considering how much upheaval a baby causes in one’s life, but I have had to
sacrifice quite a bit to reach that balance.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The point I am trying to make is
that a lot of talk about “balance” is directed towards cramming more stuff into
the same number of hours. Instead I think we should talk more openly about what
is and what isn’t important. What we can give up and what we need to maintain.
Only then should we discuss how we can use the finite number of hours allotted to
us to carry out the tasks that we have prioritised.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-56692790061683557302015-01-09T13:11:00.000-08:002015-01-09T13:11:40.024-08:00The academic parent #1 - guilt and multiple personalities<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Preamble</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I plan to blog occasionally about
being an academic and a parent. I’m not entirely sure what form this is going
to take. I’ll try to keep each blog short. Most blogs are unlikely to have a
moral or a valuable lesson to be learned. They are more likely to be a
reflection on something that has happened to me recently that I feel others
might be interested in. I believe this first post fits this description.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Note</b> – I have been a parent for a few months. This is a ridiculously short period of time. All opinions are likely to change on a daily basis dependent on how much sleep I get the previous night and whether my daughter is teething. This should therefore very much be viewed as a snapshot.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p><b>Guilt and multiple personalities</b></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<o:p><br /></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
My daughter was born seven months
ago. She’s now crawling around, making strange loud noises from her mouth (and
other body parts), and smiling copiously. It’s a genuine joy spending time with
her on a regular basis, and a genuine pain having to get up early every morning.
It’s the best thing I've done in my life.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I've been meaning to blog about
parenthood in some form for a while now (seven months in fact!), but strangely
enough have had very little time to do it. The first few weeks were a complete
blur. I took two weeks off, and then went back part time for a further 4 weeks.
Altogether this added up to about a month of paternity leave. Luckily I work
for an organisation that provides up to a month paternity leave at full pay. I
count my blessings (I don't know how people cope with two weeks - I would have taken more if I could).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Returning to work was a strange
sensation, and this is the topic of this first blog. When I returned to work it
seemed like I had been away for a long time, but of course nothing had changed.
Slotting back in to the regular daily routine was surprisingly easy – like sitting
down in a comfortable arm chair. The thing I found most difficult to deal with,
mostly due to how unexpectedly it appeared, was guilt. When at work, I was
thinking about being at home and felt guilty about leaving my wife alone with
the baby. When I was at home, I was thinking about being at work and felt
guilty about not getting enough work done. I then started to feel guilty about
thinking about work at home and thinking about home at work. It all got very
confusing and meant I wasn't working very hard nor being that great a parent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I’ll return to guilt shortly.
First, I want to take a small detour to discuss multiple personalities. I've
always been a bit suspicious of people who act completely differently dependent
on context. Of course we all moderate our behaviour based on where we are and
who we are talking to, but I've always found it jarring when someone I know
well in a work situation acts like a different individual in a social context.
Having a baby has changed this. I now do whatever it is I have to do to make my
daughter smile. Baby smiles are like crack – highly addictive. If I have to
sing a stupid song, pull a stupid face, blow raspberries, so be it. I will sacrifice
my dignity at the altar of my child's happiness. I have never been a
particularly frivolous silly individual, so I have had to learn how to behave
in this way. I've essentially developed a new personality that would be wholly
inappropriate in a work setting. I now find it surprisingly easy to switch
between these modes of thought (if you can describe a set of behaviours that
mostly consist of doing stupid things as a mode of thought).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
How does this relate to the guilt
I mentioned earlier? Put simply, having multiple personalities has cured my
guilt. My work persona now doesn't think too much about home. Equally, my home
persona cares not for the seriousness of work. The compartmentalisation has
made me more efficient at work and a better parent at home.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-40208025910864822392014-06-18T07:57:00.000-07:002014-06-18T07:57:57.765-07:00My Negative CV<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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I present to you my negative CV.
Rather than list all my successes <a href="http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/ahorner/cv.html" target="_blank">(as I do here)</a>, here I’m listing all
the jobs I haven’t been offered, all the papers I’ve had rejected, and all the
awards I haven’t been given.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]-->Before I start, I should probably
note that I’m not doing badly at present. I had a successful PhD, and am in my third
year of a five year post-doc. I have several publications, and was even lucky
enough to win a prize for my PhD work. It would be dishonest to claim I’m not
doing reasonably well, but I certainly know individuals with ‘stronger’ CVs –
prestigious fellowships, publications in ‘big’ journals etc. My point in
opening up my CV is more to show the extent of rejection that has gone with the
successes I have had. This might offer hope to PhD students, suggesting that
rejections don’t spell the end of their career, or it could provoke anxiety, wondering how they could put up with so much rejection (or even that they've been at the recieving end of a lot more rejection). Regardless, I hope that
the information is useful for some. Whether or not potential future employees
will regard it as ‘useful’ is another matter, but one I will have to cope with
when the time comes.</div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Educations & Jobs:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2005</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for PhD position @
Cambridge – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for PhD position @ York –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2009</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for post-doc position @
Cambridge – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for College fellowship @
Cambridge – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2010</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for Wellcome fellowship –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for MRC fellowship –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for ESRC fellowship –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for post-doc position @
Oxford – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for post-doc position @
Birkbeck – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2011</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Apply for British Academy fellowship
– rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Awards and Prizes</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2010</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Nominated for BPS postgrad award
– nope</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2011</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Nominated for BPS postgrad award –
nope</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Nominated for EPS Frith Prize award
– nope </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2013</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Nominated for BPS postgrad award –
nope</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Publications</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2008</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to Neuroimage – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2010</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to Neuropsychologia –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2012</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to Nature Neuroscience –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to Neuron – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to Science – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2013</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to PLOS: Biology –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to PNAS – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to PLOS: Biology –
rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Submit to PNAS – rejected</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
As can been seen, I’ve been
rejected a few times since 2005 (this doesn't include undergrad courses I was rejected from). I’ve no idea what the average rate of
rejection is for someone at a similar stage in their career. I was relatively
selective in applying for post-docs in or around the London area (for personal
reasons), so perhaps applied for fewer jobs than others might do when finishing
their PhD. Who knows. What is clear is that in order to have even a small
amount of success you need to keep banging on the door until someone lets you
in. The only reason I got into Cambridge to do a PhD was because I went away,
did an MSc, and reapplied the following year with a stronger CV. The only
reason I won an award for my PhD work was because my PhD supervisor was willing
to repeatedly nominate me over three successive years.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I think two points stem from
this: (1) get used to rejection, it is part of the job and (2) find a way to
channel rejection into something productive. The easiest thing to do when you
have a paper rejected is to sit on it for a few months – the best thing to do
is to work on it straight away. That exasperated annoyance you get when
reviewers/editors haven’t realised the brilliance of your manuscript? Use it to
make your paper better and submit it somewhere else (although perhaps wait a
day or two just to calm yourself down a little bit first…).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Note – although every attempt has
been made to ensure this CV is accurate, it was actually surprisingly difficult
to retrace my steps (at least is terms of rejection). It seems even electronic
memory has a positive bias.</div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-54346089425784026452014-05-31T04:14:00.000-07:002014-05-31T04:14:11.364-07:00Replication and methods sections<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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</xml><![endif]-->Wow, things got a bit shouty
there didn’t they. If you’re not up to speed, some people like replication,
others don’t, and they don’t seem to get along very well. In an effort to
remove all the interest out of this topic I thought it best to write a boring
post about methods sections.<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
First things first, I like
replication (who doesn’t!). I haven’t been involved in attempting to perform direct
replications of other peoples work (at least not until very recently), but I replicate
my own findings as much as possible to persuade myself of the validity of my
results. I’m broadly supportive of the recent ‘replication movement’ although
I’m not sure how novel an idea it really is given plenty of areas in psychology
have been replicating for many a year.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Here is the small point I want to
make, and it relates to the issue of being able to replicate purely on the
basis of the methods section from a paper from another lab. The pro-replicators
often state that if methods sections are written appropriately, anyone should
be able to perform a replication of the study. However, this strong statement
seems to me to be a bit naïve. I have two reasons for thinking this:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
1. A good methods section should
include ‘all the necessary details in order to perform the experiment again’
however it should also exclude ‘any extraneous detail’. Without the latter then
methods section could read something along the lines of:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Procedure – each participant was welcomed in the lobby of the ground
floor of 17 Queen Square, London, UK. The experimenter shook their right hand
and encouraged them to enter the lift. The experimenter pressed the button for
the 2<sup>nd</sup> floor. Doors closed within 10s of this button press…….The
participant was asked to take a seat in front of the computer screen with both
feet firmly on the floor such that their upper and lower legs formed a right angle
with each other.</i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
You’re probably reading this
thinking this is absurd, and I agree. My (small) point is that it can sometimes
be difficult to decide what is ‘necessary detail’ and what is ‘extraneous’. We
make a judgement called based on our experience and knowledge of the
literature. This will always be the case. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The issue being, one person’s idea of ‘extraneous’
will sometimes be different from another person’s – I wouldn’t dream of stating
that the participant held a hot beverage before starting the experiment, but
some think this is obviously relevant in certain situations.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
2. A well written methods section
doesn’t allow ‘anyone’ to replicate the experiment. If I gave a well written
methods section from a psychology journal to a historian of art I wouldn’t
expect them to be able to replicate the experiment (or, if they managed, they
wouldn’t do it very well). This argument applies to a lesser extent within
sub-divisions of psychology as well – I would expect a cognitive psychologist
who studies memory to be able to replicate my experiments more thoroughly than
a social psychologist (and vice versa). If this wasn’t the case, why do we think it is useful
giving students experience in running experiments if not to ‘learn the
technique’?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
This isn’t to say that we can’t
and shouldn’t be able to replicate based purely on the methods section of
someone’s paper. It’s simply to say, writing a methods section is hard and requires
some amount of subjectivity with regards to what to include. Also, replication
is hard – it’s impossible to replicate exactly – judgement calls have to be
made about whether subtle differences between the original and the replication attempt
matter.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Given all this, I heartily
recommend talking to each other more (preferably in a civil manner). If I wanted
to replicate someone’s experiment I would email them and ask them as many
questions as possible. They don’t have a right to be involved, or contribute,
or have a say in the experiment I am running, but it would be foolish for me to
not want to communicate with them. Equally, I would be honoured if someone
thought my experiment was worthy of replication. I would of course be nervous –
what if it doesn’t replicate!? – and worried – did I make a mistake previously!?
– but all these things are natural consequences of being a human being with a
vested interest in my own research. I hope I’d be grown up enough to deal
with those anxieties. Time will tell…</div>
<br />
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<![endif]--><br />Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-6141871594295506192014-02-10T14:19:00.000-08:002014-02-10T14:19:43.046-08:00In defence of ‘trends’<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
I don’t have a problem with
people reporting ‘trends’. There, I’ve said it now so I can’t take it back. I
see a lot of tweets highlighting research papers reporting non-significant ‘trends’.
For example, someone might write in their results section “our comparison of
interest was marginally significant (p=.08)”. So how bad is it to say something
like this instead of “our comparison of interest wasn’t significant (p=.08)”? My
argument is it depends on the circumstances and the exact wording. This isn’t
to defend dodgy statistical practices, but just to add a bit more nuance rather
than vilifying anyone who reports ‘trends’.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
So, when is it definitely bad? When
you want an effect to be there, you bend over backward and report one-tailed
p-values, then report a ‘marginal’ effect, and finally make conclusions based on
that ‘effect’. This situation undoubtedly applies to a lot of cases and is
clearly the wrong way to go about doing things. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Perhaps more contentious though: when is it
OK to report a ‘trend’? Well, I would argue that as long as you are upfront
about whether an effect is significant or not, and you are consistent in the
manner in which you report it, it is OK to bring attention to the fact that a
certain contrast revealed a ‘trend’.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
For example, say I have run 3
experiments. Each experiment has four conditions in a 2x2 factorial design [A1B1
A2B1 A1B2 A2B2]. In all three experiments I see a significant difference
between A1 and A2 in condition B1, but not in B2. Great, all three experiments
agree with each other! In Experiments 1-2, I also see a significant interaction
between these two factors. In other words, the difference between A1 and A2 in
condition B1 is greater than the difference between A1 and A2 in condition B2.
Great, everyone likes an interaction. However, in Experiment 3, the interaction
doesn’t quite reach significance (p=.06). In such a situation I don’t see an
issue with saying “the interaction term didn’t reach significance (though we
note a trend in line with Experiments 1-2)”*. Some might disagree, but in my
view as long as you are upfront about what you are reporting then the reader is
at liberty to decide for themselves whether to ‘believe’ your results or not.</div>
<br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
If you do disagree, the fact
remains that the use of the word ‘trend’ is probably here to stay. So with that
in mind, I’ve tried to come up with some suggestions that should hopefully
bring clarity if people decide they do want to use the dirty word:</div>
<br />
<ol>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"></span></span></span>State
first and foremost that the effect is not significant – it isn’t, get over it.</li>
<li><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>State
clearly what you think a ‘trend’ is, ahead of time. For example, any two-tailed
p-value between .05 and .08.</li>
<li>Apply
this criterion to all contrasts, whether it is a contrast you predicted would
be significant or not. If you think ‘trends’ are worth bringing attention to,
this applies equally to effects you might not be as interested in or you didn’t
predict would be significant.</li>
<li>Don’t
draw conclusions from any ‘trends’ unless they are supported by further
evidence – as in the example I outlined above.</li>
</ol>
<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
In this way all you are doing is bringing attention to
particular non-significant p-values in a consistent non-biased manner. I’m
guessing there will be some who disagree with this type of approach. I’d be
interested to hear people’s views regardless.</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 0cm; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
* Actually, in this situation you
could run a mixed-ANOVA to compare the interaction term across experiments. If
you find a significant interaction between A and B, that didn’t further
interact with the between-subject factor ‘Experiment’, then everyone is happy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-22063290955945041252013-11-26T07:53:00.001-08:002013-11-26T07:53:03.993-08:00Research Briefing: The associative structure of memory for multi-element events<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Inspired by <a href="http://neurochambers.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">Chris Chambers</a> and
<a href="http://the-brain-box.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">Mark Stokes</a>, this is a research briefing about a recent paper published by
myself and Neil Burgess. My hope is that it explains why we did the research,
what we found, and why we feel this is important. As with the research
briefings from the names above, it is aimed at a scientifically-curious
individual without any prior knowledge in the subject. In relation to this, I
hope I pitch it correctly – do let me know one way or the other!</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Horner, A.J., & Burgess, N. (2013) <i>The associative structure of memory for multi-element events</i>, <b>Journal of Experimental Psychology: General</b>, 142(4), 1370-1383. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xge/142/4/1370/" target="_blank">[abstract & PDF]</a></div>
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<br /></div>
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When we remember previous events
in our lives we bring to mind a wealth of information. We remember the layout
of the living-room, the person we were talking to, the music that was playing
in the background and the smell that wafted through from the kitchen. When we
first experienced this event, each element within this multi-sensory experience
was processed in different regions of the brain. For example, the visual
information will have been processed in visual cortex in the occipital and
temporal lobes and the auditory information in auditory cortex in the temporal
lobes. How is it that we are able to remember all these multiple elements despite
them being processed in different regions of the brain? </div>
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<br /></div>
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Theories of episodic memory
(memory for events) suggest that all the multiple elements of an event are
bound together in an ‘event’ memory (or, more precisely, and event ‘engram’ or event
‘memory trace’) [1]. By binding all this information into a single engram, all the
elements from an event can be retrieved and re-experienced at a later time. The
hippocampi, located in the temporal lobes, are thought to support this binding
as they receive input from multiple regions of the cortex. In this sense, they
act as ‘convergence zones’, binding information across our multiple senses [2].</div>
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<br /></div>
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Although most theories of
episodic memory presume the existence of bound event engrams, little evidence
has been presented in support of this idea [though see 3]. One prediction that stems from this
proposal is that the retrieval of elements from the same event should be
related. If you retrieve information about the location you were in, you should
be more likely to retrieve information about who was there and what they were
saying at the time. In other words, retrieval of an event should be ‘all-or-none’
in nature. We tested this prediction, providing support for the existence of bound
event engrams.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXWvxHAGFuH2dYBHuPUesBNERFInUGZVuw3RvgUKtgQjpWmxfaJBeSyy-31zcfN2Iuma97l5HXU1dv1FwbWxtvOAeI9I2CeLeyDcegZMiEaKOVGyqF6BPV5xqd0lpqAPOBaksM1-GyD-Y/s1600/Figure_1.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXWvxHAGFuH2dYBHuPUesBNERFInUGZVuw3RvgUKtgQjpWmxfaJBeSyy-31zcfN2Iuma97l5HXU1dv1FwbWxtvOAeI9I2CeLeyDcegZMiEaKOVGyqF6BPV5xqd0lpqAPOBaksM1-GyD-Y/s1600/Figure_1.bmp" height="400" width="640" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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The experiments consisted of a learning
and a testing phase (Figure 1). During learning, participants were presented
with a series of ‘events’. Each event consisted of three elements – a location, famous
person and object. For example, an event might be: Kitchen, Barack Obama and
Hammer. The three elements of each event were presented on a computer screen,
as words. Participants were required to construct a mental image of the three
elements interacting and imagine it as vividly as possible. For example, they
might imagine Barack Obama smashing kitchen cupboards with a hammer. After
learning several events we tested their memory for each pairwise association
within each three element event. In the above example, this meant testing the
association between Kitchen and Barack Obama; Kitchen and Hammer; and Barack
Obama and Hammer. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfu4l_vWrtU0wELnCH6pueRHTUrWNiF-3QlZR-hGP7llSS7Dx1_0UFmrZ0J95zK0vi7avPp0YeETZGgiVDDE5OfdCrOvV6cfX4We5NU0tk_bmpozGH_Q20Xn4UGkgmNZ4l7a5JlCfRIis/s1600/Figure2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfu4l_vWrtU0wELnCH6pueRHTUrWNiF-3QlZR-hGP7llSS7Dx1_0UFmrZ0J95zK0vi7avPp0YeETZGgiVDDE5OfdCrOvV6cfX4We5NU0tk_bmpozGH_Q20Xn4UGkgmNZ4l7a5JlCfRIis/s1600/Figure2.bmp" height="358" width="400" /></a>If all three elements of an event
are bound in a single event engram, performance for each pair should be related.
If you remember Kitchen and Barack Obama, you should also remember Kitchen and
Hammer. Equally, if you don’t remember one pair, you shouldn’t remember the
other pairs from the same event. We tested this ‘dependency’ between retrievals
from the same event. In order to control for differences in accuracy and the
level of guessing across participants, we developed models that predicted the
level of dependency if performance of pairs for an event were unrelated (the
Independent Model) or if performance of pairs for an event were completely
related (the Dependent Model). We then compared the amount of dependency for
each participant with each of these models to see if the retrieval of elements
from the same event were related. Across three experiments we showed strong
evidence for this predicted dependency. The level of dependency was
consistently greater than the Independent Model (Figure 2), and in some situations did not
differ from the Dependent Model (see paper).</div>
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<br /></div>
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Thus, we provided evidence that
the multiple elements of an event are bound within a single ‘event’ engram.
Event engrams are thought to be the fundamental building blocks of episodic
memory. They allow us to retrieve information about a single event, without
retrieving information from other similar events. Despite the common assumption
that these event engrams exist, we provide some of the first behavioural
evidence for their existence. Our future work is focussing on revealing the
exact neural mechanism that allows for this event binding, as well as investigating
which regions of the brain support this binding process.</div>
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Multiregional Activation from Convergence Zones. <i>Neural Computation</i>, <i>1</i>(1),
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Cued recall of pictures and of sequential position. <i>Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General</i>, <i>105</i>(3), 277–293.</span> </span> </li>
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Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-27593975553445311392013-09-11T08:48:00.000-07:002013-09-11T08:51:06.614-07:00Changing attitudes to benefits?<div style="text-align: justify;">
This should be a very quick post. There were a couple of articles in the Guardian yesterday on the British Social Attitudes Survery <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/sep/10/changing-british-attitudes-support-benefits" target="_blank">[1]</a><a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/sep/10/benefits-scroungers-british-social-attitudes" target="_blank">[2]</a>. Here are some quotes:</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"The percentage of Britons believing that "benefits for unemployed people are too high and discourage work" has seen the biggest fall in thirty years"</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Since last year, and perhaps in stark contradiction to most people's
expectations, attitudes towards benefit claimants have become strikingly
more sympathetic. The difference in the 2012 findings is the largest
single change on this scale since the survey began. Last year 62% felt
that benefits were too high and discouraged work. This year that has
dropped to 52%."</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
So let's look at the data. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH88MW4CxFu0tZU91Q0GLZxlJmFQz_nSl13LXPU7GpPUgJd1t5GKtrGhw94R8sB6-63Px8Flihr3qT4yEu01-3XIh0S1VL8AcDLsvUZv0ixe7sdVl8xi1naiTYS0eiTeC6vkcJtYRUz9s/s1600/fig1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiH88MW4CxFu0tZU91Q0GLZxlJmFQz_nSl13LXPU7GpPUgJd1t5GKtrGhw94R8sB6-63Px8Flihr3qT4yEu01-3XIh0S1VL8AcDLsvUZv0ixe7sdVl8xi1naiTYS0eiTeC6vkcJtYRUz9s/s1600/fig1.jpg" height="520" width="640" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
On the x-axis we have year and the y-axis the percentage of people agree with either the statement "benefits for unemployed people are too high and discourage work" (in green) or "benefits for unemployed people are too low and cause hardship" (in blue).</div>
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<br /></div>
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The 'softening' in attitudes the quotes are referring to is the change from 2011 to 2012 (look at the dip in the green line at the far right of the graph). This is technically correct, but come on, there is signal and there is noise. Compared to the overall trend over the past 25 years it seems like the journalists are clutching at straws. Of course, this dip could be meaningful, but it is impossible to tell from 2 data points. If the trend continues next year then we might be able to start discussing it.</div>
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<br /></div>
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As an example, here are two curves fitted to the data set. For the geeks, the first is a polynomial of degree 2 (quadratic; left panel) and the second of degree 3 (cubic; right panel). The dots are the actual data, the lines the fitted curves.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl3xWY8Xui5Auz3UTdzp8JsCLFjMIcd0W21iZv_OWLtQoEE0LpfTeBjIp7d-Riaedb0AzbfuiWiTYqDH9jYqOt7wlm5HlbMIOqwe4T9zZG7-62hg9TtfLKuXP_S_7ST1PQDD1zbmjY_fQ/s1600/fig4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl3xWY8Xui5Auz3UTdzp8JsCLFjMIcd0W21iZv_OWLtQoEE0LpfTeBjIp7d-Riaedb0AzbfuiWiTYqDH9jYqOt7wlm5HlbMIOqwe4T9zZG7-62hg9TtfLKuXP_S_7ST1PQDD1zbmjY_fQ/s1600/fig4.jpg" height="336" width="640" /></a>The only point I want to make is that the lines (fitted curves) go either up or down at the end depending on the particular model. I did this analysis in 5 minutes in MATLAB (the polyfit function for those interested) so it is obviously crude. In short, we don't really know if the change from 2011-2012 will continue in the same direction or even reverse next year.</div>
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<br /></div>
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At this point I should add that both journalists provided caveats to their original statements by saying:</div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"Although this is the biggest softening in attitudes so far, it doesn't
represent the highest level of support for benefits to the unemployed.
In fact, looking at all three decades of data reveals a very different
picture of how attitudes to welfare have changed."</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
"I would urge caution. As the Guardian's Data Blog shows this morning, the graph on this question is what statisticians call, in technical jargon, a spiky little bugger." </div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
My only point is that both pieces seemed to lead with noise and caveat with the signal. The latter should be the focus and the former worthy of note, not the other way round. </div>
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Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-41681259099915153042013-09-10T08:46:00.001-07:002013-09-10T08:46:46.227-07:00Journal Club #1<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
One of the
reasons for starting a blog was that I wanted to occasionally write brief
summaries of papers that have influenced me along the way. In particular, I
wanted to write about papers that either might not have received a great deal
of attention when published, or older papers that I think still have a great
deal to offer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m starting with a paper
I hold dear, as it was the rock that I built my ramshackle PhD upon.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Logan, G. (1990) Repetition priming and
automaticity: common underlying mechanisms?, Cognitive Psychology, 22, 1-35</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Repetition
priming is simply a change in behaviour to a stimulus you have previously
experienced relative to one you have not. For example, if I showed you an
object and asked you to classify it according to whether it was man-made you
would respond more quickly and accurately on the second compared to the first
presentation. So what? Firstly, repetition priming can be a big effect. You can
be as much as 200msecs faster on the second presentation of an object, a
potential 20% increase in speed [1]. Secondly, amnesics show intact priming,
despite being impaired at consciously remembering specific events (such as what
they had for breakfast that morning; referred to as ‘episodic’ memory)[2].
Thirdly, priming is long lasting – effects have been shown despite a gap of
several years between the first and second presentation of a stimulus [3]. So
priming seemingly taps into a mechanism(s) that learns quickly (following a
single presentation of a stimulus), lasts a long time (several years) and seems
to be distinct from ‘conscious’ or ‘explicit’ forms of memory.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
What causes
repetition priming? There is plenty of healthy debate about the underlying
cause(s) of priming. Perhaps the most common idea though relates to the
learning of perceptual information when a stimulus is first encountered [4].
For example, when we see an object for the first time we construct a perceptual
representation of that object. On second presentation the existence of the previously
learned perceptual representation allows us to recognise the object more
quickly, speeding up any subsequent task performed on the object. Although many
argue about the specifics of such theories [5-6], most would agree that one
locus of repetition priming is perceptual in nature. If this is the case, it
shouldn’t necessarily matter what particular task we perform on the object each
time we see it; faster recognition = faster reaction times = repetition
priming.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Logan proposed a
completely different idea [7]. He suggested that when we see an object for the
first time and respond to the object, we learn a direct mapping between the
stimulus and response (an S-R association). When the object is seen for a
second time, we simply retrieve the S-R association learned on the first
presentation and quickly make the same response. Put simply, we don’t need to
figure out what response to make anymore as we just remember what we did last
time. This idea makes a clear prediction that ‘perceptual’ theories of
repetition priming do not. It predicts that if you have to respond differently
on the second presentation of an object relative to the first presentation,
repetition priming should decrease. In other words, you should only see
repetition priming when you are able to make the same response on the second
presentation. Across a series of 4 elegant experiments Logan clearly showed
this to be the case. When participants had to perform a different response
between stimulus presentations, or compute a new response following a switch in
task, repetition priming significantly decreased. He therefore provided strong
evidence for his view of repetition priming. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Again, why
should we care? Well, the two theories of priming outlined above are
fundamentally distinct learning mechanisms. One relates to perceptual learning,
one to associative stimulus-response learning. A phenomenon as robust and
ubiquitous as repetition priming deserves to be fully understood. This debate
is particularly important for fMRI studies of “neural priming”, where people
use an effect called repetition suppression or fMR-adaptation (a decrease in
the fMRI BOLD response to a repeated relative to a novel stimulus). Many
studies have presumed “neural priming” relates to perceptual learning within
visual regions. If Logan is correct, however, the effect they are measuring may
actually relate to the learning/retrieval of S-R associations and therefore may
not be telling us anything about perceptual learning <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">per se</i> [8]. Without being aware of this experimental psychology research,
it would be easy to confound perceptual learning with S-R learning by not
including a response manipulation within your experimental design. This is,
therefore, a classic example of how cognitive psychology and clever
experimental design can help inform more ‘neuroscientific’ studies of the same
underlying phenomena.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Finally, just a
quick note to say Logan wasn’t completely correct. It seems, as is often the
case, that repetition priming results from multiple learning mechanisms. One
does relate to the learning of perceptual (and conceptual) representations and
another relates to the learning of S-R associations [9]. As a result of Logan’s
original work we now have much clearer understanding of the multiple mechanisms
underlying repetition priming, as well as having much tighter experimental
control over these different contributions.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b>References:</b></div>
<br />
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<li><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-no-proof: yes;">Dobbins, I. G., Schnyer, D. M., Verfaellie, M., &
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Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-67403029364850260342013-08-18T12:08:00.000-07:002013-08-18T12:08:31.151-07:00What are experimental psychologists good for?<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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Just what are experimental
psychologists good for? Or perhaps more specifically, what are experimental
psychologists good for in the field of cognitive neuroscience? Although my non-psychologist
colleagues haven’t been blatant enough to ask me this question directly, they
have certainly alluded to it on many occasions. Indeed, experimental
psychologists themselves sometimes suffer from self-esteem issues. A PhD
student the other day commented to me that they had done psychology as an undergraduate,
but felt they should have done a ‘harder’ subject. Apparently, it would have
been easier to pick up psychology without formal tuition, compared to say brain
anatomy or the physics of MRI or the complexities of synaptic transmission. To
this I say poppycock.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Cognitive neuroscience is an
inherently multidisciplinary field. Physicists, medics, computer scientists,
mathematicians and, yes, experimental psychologists, rub shoulders with each
other on a daily basis. This allows for research that would never be possible
if people with such academic backgrounds were isolated. For example, carrying
out complex analyses of functional neuroimaging data acquired in specific
patient populations. The more mathematically minded are needed for pushing the
boundaries of analysis techniques, medics are needed for the patient
populations and psychologists are needed for experimental design and
interpretation of the results. Few would dispute this, but a common assumption is
that the ‘experimental design’ part is the easy bit. We’re interested in
memory, so let’s give them the memory component from a neuropsychological
battery, or a word list to memorise, and see what’s going on in the brain! Yay
brains! Interestingly, this argument doesn’t seem to apply in reverse. Although
many do it, you wouldn’t go around bragging that computer scientists and
physicists aren’t needed because analysing neuroimaging data is the easy bit,
you just use the default settings in SPM or FSL (or AFNI! Hello Americans!),
click some buttons, and hey presto – blobs on brains!</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
So is experimental design easy,
or is it easier to ‘pick up’ without formal tuition? You already know I’m going
to answer with a resounding NO. Learning how to design good, well controlled,
experiments is hard. It requires years of learning other people’s designs,
designing your own experiments, getting formal feedback on those designs,
running experiments, refining your previous designs and, importantly, pouring
over data. It is only by getting your hands dirty designing, running and
analysing experiments, within the structure of a formal supervision process,
that this skill can be appropriately learned (actually, it is never 'learned', you are always learning). So the next time someone makes a
back-handed remark about psychologists, stand up for yourself and your academic
background. No-one else is going to!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
There is a beauty to experimental
design. Just as mathematicians see beauty in equations, I see beauty in experiments.
I imagine it is much the same as the beauty an engineer sees in their structural
designs, in that it is a mix of creativity and logic, of elegance and practical
necessity. You start with a problem, or a research question, and map out the
most obvious way to answer the question. You write it down. You look at what
you’ve scribbled and instantly see an issue. You think. You come up with a
solution. That introduces another unforeseen problem, so you change that. The
whole thing starts to get a bit complicated. You have an epiphany and see a
simpler means of getting at the same underlying issue. You tweak that further.
You repeat over and over until you are as close to happy as you will get. This
to me is the best bit of research in my field. The process excites me, as I get
closer to the final design and the possibility of answering a previously
unanswerable scientific question.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
That is what experimental
psychologists are good for in a multidisciplinary subject such as cognitive
neuroscience. Clever experimental design, grounded in cognitive theory, that
gets to the core of the question any research endeavour into the brain choses
to ask.</div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-87262303357515970652013-07-31T07:05:00.000-07:002013-07-31T07:11:32.478-07:00My (belated) thoughts on pre-registration<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
*** Warning: Newbie Blogger ***</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
A lot has been written about the
new pre-registration format in Cortex. Although the topic has been relatively
drip-feed in nature over the last few months since its initial inception <a href="http://neurochambers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/changing-culture-of-scientific.html" target="_blank">[1]</a>, a
recent article in the Times Higher Education <a href="http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/comment/opinion/pre-registration-would-put-science-in-chains/2005954.article" target="_blank">[2]</a> voicing concerns over the
format caused a bit of a twitter storm (at least in my feed, which is largely
populated by science folk). Now this controversy has calmed down relative to a
few days ago, I thought I would chip in with my two cents. I feel this exercise
is largely for my benefit, so I can formulate my own thoughts on the matter. I
hope it is also useful to others. I am mindful of a recent article by Charlie
Brooker on our internet word emissions <a href="http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jul/28/too-much-talk-charlie-brooker" target="_blank">[3]</a><span id="goog_1004357764"></span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/"></a><span id="goog_1004357765"></span>, but given the numbers of words he
has constructively vomited onto the internet over the years I think I can
indulge just this once.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The problem</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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The current state of affairs in
psychology is far from perfect and the issues have been well documented. From
over-inflated false positive rates due to ‘p-hacking’ <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22006061" target="_blank">[4]</a> to underpowered
studies <a href="http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v14/n5/full/nrn3475.html" target="_blank">[5]</a>. In my office we often discuss the ‘post-hoc’ nature of hypotheses
in fMRI papers – writing a manuscript as if you designed the study to answer
the question you have unexpectedly answered, as opposed to the question you
wanted to ask originally. I don’t intend to deliberate on these issues. The
fact that they are issues is relatively uncontroversial. The debate largely revolves
around how much of a problem these issues actually are (e.g. how prevalent they
are). Some would argue that the flexibility of the current system is what makes
our field so dynamic and creative. Impose undue restrictions, such as
pre-registration, and we would be conducting experiments with one hand behind
our back. My personal take is that these issues are important and need to be
addressed. Whether pre-registration is the cure for what ails research is open
to debate, but I firmly believe more needs to be done in order to promote replicability
across the field.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Whether pre-registration is the cure is an empirical question</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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I saw this point originally made
by Rolf Zwaan on twitter: “Is pre-reg better? It's an empirical question so no
wholesale adoption: we need a control group”. This is an important point. At
present we know there is “a problem” (with the obvious caveat that the extent
of the problem is a matter of debate). Although we can debate <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad nauseam</i> about whether
pre-registration is the solution to the problem, it is clearly amenable to
empirical testing. We can ask questions such as, are pre-registered studies
more likely to replicate than studies that were not pre-registered? It seems to
me there is no <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">priori</i> reason to believe that pre-registration will not work, so
why not wait and review the data when we have it? Of course, this means we
shouldn’t adopt the pre-registration model wholesale, but to my knowledge
no-one was proposing this in the first place. In sum, why not accept its
introduction, wait for the data to come in, and then judge?</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">‘On average’ versus ‘paper-by-paper’</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Fair enough, you might say, but
Chris Chambers, the scientist behind the introduction of pre-registration in
Cortex, has argued that pre-registered studies have “a substantially higher
truth value than regular studies” <a href="http://neurochambers.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/changing-culture-of-scientific.html" target="_blank">[1]</a>. This is certainly a provocative statement,
and I am uncomfortable with the use of the word ‘truth’, as it is asking for
philosophical types to hijack the debate and start arguing about whether
science can ever reveal ‘truth’. Instead let us discuss ‘reliability’, or even
better ‘replicability’. Replicability is perhaps a more useful word as it is
something we can measure (see above) and measurement is inherently ‘good’. So
does pre-registration increase replicability? The short answer is: probably.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If issues such as p-hacking are real concerns,
pre-registration should at least decrease the probability that a paper is
p-hacked, decreasing false positive rates. This should mean that pre-registered
papers are ‘on average’ more likely to be replicable than non-preregistered
studies.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
This issue of ‘on average’ had
been nagging me for some time, but the issue was crystallised for me by James
Kilner <a href="http://kilnerlab.blogspot.co.uk/2013/07/further-thoughts-on-pre-registration.html" target="_blank">[6]</a>. Actually, I believe this issue might get to the heart of the
disagreement between the pro- and anti-preregistration camps.
Pro-preregistrationers (I’m not sure that is actually a word) are primarily
making an ‘on average’ argument. They argue that pre-registered articles ‘on
average’ will be more likely to replicate than non-preregistered articles. This,
of course, does not mean that if you take an article that has since been
replicated and one that turned out to be a false positive that you can decide
whether one was pre-registered and the other was not. The two ‘replicability’
distributions will undoubtedly overlap. Any individual paper must, as always,
be judged ultimately on its own merits. Just as I may ‘believe’ an fMRI study
where the results are significant following correction for multiple comparisons
relative to a study that reports uncorrected effects, I may be more inclined to
‘believe’ a pre-registered relative to a non-preregistered study. I might still
read the pre-registered study and decide it is terrible based on other criteria
though! Anti-preregistrationers (definitely not a word) are, perhaps
justifiably, worried that their non-preregistered studies will be automatically
dismissed as ‘non-truthy’. I reality, I don’t think this is likely to happen.
Just as the scientific method is messy and chaotic, the way we read and judge
published studies is messy and chaotic. We all have different criteria by which
we judge papers. The introduction of pre-registration seems unlikely to change
these habits, so why worry?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The problem is societal</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Ultimately, the issue we
currently face within the fields of psychology and cognitive neuroscience is societal.
On this issue I am in agreement with Micah Allen: “My position is that the
"crisis" has more to do with our publish-or-perish culture”. The
dubious practices used by specific individuals are primarily a product of the
scientific society in which we find ourselves. Again, I do not want to go into
specifics, but the phrase “publish-or-perish” sums up the problem succinctly
enough. As a young researcher I have felt the undeniable pressure to publish in
‘high-impact’ journals and publish there often. This pressure has never come
directly from a supervisor or colleague, but simply from the ‘mood-music’ of
science – the constant conversations about who got what published where, who
got what fellowship to go where, who got what prize and why. I have been lucky
enough to have great supervisors from undergraduate to post-doc. Perhaps others
are not quite so lucky, but the pressure is there regardless of your
supervisor.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Will pre-registration address
this issue? In short, no. It is primarily a tool, which could increase the
replicability of a small subset of studies but is unlikely to be adopted across
the board (indeed, I don’t think anyone would argue it should be adopted across
the board). It may have a small effect on our scientific culture in that it
could change the ‘mood-music’, increasing awareness of these issues across labs
and departments. The more people give voice to the problems we face, the more
likely people are to not utilise particular questionable practices. However, I
would argue that this effect is largely a by-product of the debate surrounding
pre-registration as opposed to pre-registration itself.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Final words</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The format of Cortex’s
pre-registration model has a lot to like about it. In particular, the
requirement to formally state whether specific effects were predicted or came
from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">post hoc</i> observational analyses
is great. It is difficult to argue that such a distinction should stifle
scientific creativity and could readily be adopted in more journal formats.
Pre-registration would ensure people had actually predicted specific effects
prior to conducting the study, but let us be optimistic (just this once) and
trust that scientists, when asked to conform to such a format, would be
truthful (without the need to pre-register). In other words, this distinction
should probably already happen and we shouldn’t need a pre-registration model
to force our hand. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
In relation to replication, I was
lucky enough to recently find an unexpected, and therefore exciting, result in
a behavioural experiment. I’m sure I could have published this result without
further investigation however I spent the next month replicating the effect
using the same analysis methods that I developed in the first experiment. This
isn’t to congratulate myself on being a good scientist (I’m sure I’ve committed
just as many sins as the next psychologist), but it is to say replication
should occur within lab. Across-lab replication is more reassuring, but if we
aren’t bothering to replicate, particularly when we find something unexpected,
then it is little wonder why false positives creep into the literature.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
To summarise this overly long
first blog post, I thought I was going to take the middle ground in this
argument. In actual fact, I have persuaded myself that pre-registration is probably
a good thing. What I definitely believe is that it isn’t a bad thing, and we
shouldn’t fear it. I have been selective in what I have discussed, and there
are more arguments both for and against. These debates are healthy and
productive. That, in my mind, is perhaps the biggest boon of the introduction
of the pre-registration format – the open debate that could potentially nudge
our current scientific culture towards valuing reliability and replicability,
without an adverse effect on the creativity within our field.<br />
<br />
Acknowledgements: Thanks to Micah Allen and James Bisby for commenting on a first draft and therefore giving me the guts to publish. </div>
Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5846717876675549851.post-82200254558686346592013-07-30T14:52:00.001-07:002013-07-30T14:52:08.185-07:00The beginning of something smallWell, I've finally set up my own blog. This first entry isn't a blog as such, more a test to see if I can actually post something. I hope to blog on a reasonably regular basis on matters psychological and neuroscientific. We'll see how it goes...Aidan Hornerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03786625919694616118noreply@blogger.com0